The Economics of Equity in K-12 Education: Connecting Financial Investments with Effective Programming

by Goldy Brown III (Editor), Christos A. Makridis (Editor)

Overview

Despite decades of increased state and federal funding for education, student outcomes have largely deteriorated: according to the 2022 NAEP exam results, reading and math capabilities hit a thirty-year low. The emerging workforce is less prepared to handle the increasingly complex demands of the future, which is likely to accelerate income inequality and stifle our nation’s economic and social competitiveness. Presenting the latest research on the economics of K-12 education, this book makes recommendations about specific educational programming that have shown potential in increasing student outcomes for all learners, focusing on human capital and practical recommendations for state and local policy makers and educational leaders.

Product Details

ISBN-13:	9781538168998
Publisher:	Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.
Publication date:	02/01/2023
Pages:	284
Product dimensions:	5.90(w) x 8.90(h) x 0.70(d)
Age Range:	18 Years

About the Author

Contributors

Ryan Baker, Mark A. Brackett, Christopher D. Brooks, Goldy Brown III, Albert A. Cheng, Corey DeAngelis, Walter G. Ecton, Nicole A. Elbertson, Tangular A. Irby, Robert Maranto, F. Mike Miles, Krista L. Smith, Matthew G. Springer, Aidan Vining, David Weimer

About the Editors

Goldy Brown III is director of Whitworth University’s Educational Administration Program and assistant professor in Whitworth’s Graduate School of Education, in Spokane, Washington. He has more than twenty years of educational experience as a teacher, administrator, professor, and researcher. He holds a doctorate in educational leadership and policy analysis from the University of Wisconsin-Madison. Schools that Goldy Brown led received four state recognition awards for closing the achievement gap between low-income students and affluent students. His research focuses on school leadership, an effective educational policy, programs, and systems for traditionally underserved students.

Christos A. Makridis holds academic appointments out of Columbia Business School, Stanford University, University of Nicosia, Arizona State University, and Baylor University. He is also an adjunct scholar at the Manhattan Institute and a senior adviser at Gallup. Christos has published more than seventy peer-reviewed research articles and earned dual master’s and PhDs in economics and management science & engineering at Stanford University.

Table of Contents

List of Tables and Figures Introduction (Christos Makridis and Goldy Brown III) This Book’s Objective Table I.1. Educational Funding Since 1960 Figure I.1. The Relationship Between Education, Equity, and Economics Early Childhood Education Table I.2. Program Recommendations Summary of State and Local Policy Recommendations PART I: EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS THAT HAVE PRODUCED POSITIVE RESULTS 1 The Economic Value of Parent and Community Involvement (Albert A. Cheng and Robert Maranto) Changing Family Structure, Schools, and Society School and Family Inputs The Education Production Function The Coleman Report Waning Attention to Family Inputs Waxing Attention to School Finance Family Inputs and Children’s Outcomes Sociology Research and Evidence Evidence From the Understanding America Study Figure 1.1. Educational Attainment and Employment Status by Childhood Family Structure Figure 1.2. Household Income by Childhood Family Structure Figure 1.3. Positive and Negative Affect by Childhood Family Structure Educational Research on Parent Involvement and Community Engagement Evaluations of Family Support Interventions Implications for Policy and Practice and Future Research 2 The Educational Equalizer: Funding Students Instead of Systems (Corey DeAngelis) COVID Revealed a Massive Power Imbalance in Education Politicization of Public School COVID-19 Responses Incentives in the Governance of Public and Private Schools Empowering Families and Improving Outcomes Understanding the Incentives Behind Funding Students, Not Systems Table 2.1. The Effect of Private-School Choice on Math and Reading Test Scores Implementable State Policy Recommendations K-12 Education’s New Special Interest 3 Quality and Intentionality: Making After-School Programs More Effective (Goldy Brown III) Taxonomy of Government-Funded After-School Interventions Academic Improvement Social-Emotional Learning Exposure, Recreation, and STEM Improving After-School Programs: Quality and Intentionality Implementation Questions and Recommendations Recommendations for Programming Table 3.1. After-School Programs Personnel and Attendance Funding Potential Cost-Effective Analysis Table 3.2. Cost-Effective Analyses for After-School Program Preventing Negative Behavior Further Research Regarding After-School Programming 4 Career, Technical, and Higher-Education Opportunities for Traditionally Underserved Students (Walter G. Ecton) Background and Evidence on CTE Outcomes Vocational Education in the International Context Examining CTE in Today’s Context Data Descriptive Findings Figure 4.1. Distribution of Student CTE Credit Accumulation Figure 4.2. Average CTE Credits per Student by Career Cluster Table 4.1. CTE Credits Taken by Student and School Characteristics Methods Table 4.2. OLS Regression Results: Predictors of Selection as CTE Concentrator and Select Outcomes of Interest Table 4.3. Balance Check: Comparing CTE Concentrators with Matched Comparison Groups Results and Discussion Table 4.4. Propensity Score Results: CTE Concentrators Compared to Matched Students Table 4.5. OLS Regression Results: Effect of CTE Concentration Recommendations for Policy and Practice Define Intended Outcomes for Specific CTE Programs Build Partnerships to Strengthen CTE Programs Only Offer High-Quality, Relevant CTE Programs Ensure Access to CTE for the Students Who Stand to Benefit Most Focus on Equitable Participation in CTE 5 Turning Hurdles Into Launch Pads: Improving Equity and Efficiency Through Increased High School Graduations in the United States (Aidan Vining and David Weimer) Available Evidence on Ethnicity/Race (Minority) and Income Differences Table 5.1. Public School Adjusted Cohort Graduation Rate by Ethnic Group for the 2012 Through 2018 School Years (percent) Why Does It Matter? The Social Value of High School Completion High School Graduation Shadow Prices for the United States Estimation Steps Estimation Issues Table 5.2. Steps in Estimating Disadvantaged High School Graduation Shadow Price Shadow Price Estimates Benefits and Discount Rates Table 5.3. US High School Graduation Estimates: Alternative Discount Rates and Specifications, Point Estimates, and Monte Carlo Means (and Standard Deviations) in 1,000s of 2021 Dollars Benefits Including Externalities Applicability of the Estimates to Minority and Economically Disadvantaged Students Increasing Minority and Disadvantaged Student Graduation CBA and CEA Evidence Promising Interventions That Have Not (Yet) Been Shown to Offer Positive Net Benefits Conclusions and Policy Implications PART II: CHANGES NEEDED AT THE STATE AND LOCAL LEVEL TO MAKE POSITIVE RESULTS MORE WIDESPREAD 6 Getting Past the Current Trade-Off Between Privacy and Equity in Educational Technology (Ryan Baker) The Promise of Artificially Intelligent Educational Technology The Risk of Algorithmic Bias The Push Toward Prioritizing Privacy Alternative Ways to Protect Privacy While Improving Algorithmic Effectiveness Recommendations for State Educational Agencies and School Districts Provide Demographic Data to Vendors for the Purpose of Checking for Algorithmic Bias Incentivize Vendors to Conduct Algorithmic Bias Audits, or Conduct Them Directly Rather Than Asking Vendors to Delete Data, Ask Them to Secure It Encourage Vendors to Adopt Data Infrastructures That Enable Privacy-Protecting Analyses Conclusions 7 Identifying, Establishing, and Distributing the Economic Value of the Classroom Teacher (Christopher D. Brooks and Matthew G. Springer) Quantifying the Economic Value of Teachers Table 7.1. Dimension and Examples of Teacher Production Maximizing Teacher Value: Policy Reforms to Compensation, Recruitment, Evaluation, and Retention The Problem: Teacher Compensation Policies Fail to Recognize the Value of Teachers Table 7.2. Step-and-Lane Salary Schedule in Carroll County Public Schools, MD (in US dollars) Potential Policies for Improvement: Teacher Performance Incentives Challenges in Evaluating and Retaining the Most Effective and Valuable Teachers The Problem: Teacher Evaluation Systems Neither Adequately Differentiate Teachers by Ability Nor Emphasize the Economic Value of Teachers The Solution: Evaluation Systems That Emphasize Robust Measures of Value Added The Problem: Teacher Retention Is Low, Especially for Highly Effective Teachers, and School Leaders Have Limited Capacity for Removing Ineffective Teachers Potential Policies for Improvement: Tenure Reforms, Principal Accountability, and Increased Incentives Equity: How Can We Get the Most-Effective Teachers to Work with the Least-Advantaged Students? Conclusion and Recommendations Compensation Evaluation Retention Distribution 8 Ensuring All Children Succeed with Social-Emotional Learning (Nicole A. Elbertson, Mark A. Brackett, Tangular A. Irby, and Krista L. Smith) RULER as a Case Study Best Practices in Equitable Implementation of SEL Commit to Making Equitable SEL a Priority Hire and Maintain a Diverse Staff to Instruct and Model SEL Get to Know Students to Ensure That Lessons and Examples Are Relevant and Meaningful Acknowledge Ethnocentrism and Bias in SEL Programs and Practices and Correct for Them Ensure That SEL Is Not Misused to Control Marginalized Groups Choose Words Carefully Ensure Accessibility of All Tools, Strategies, and Content Consider Using SEL as a Means to Transform Inequitable Settings and Systems Partner with Parents, Caregivers, and the Community Be Curious and Open to Feedback Use SEL for Prevention as Well as Intervention Monitor All SEL Efforts Over Time and Strive for Continuous Improvement Conclusion and Policy Implications 9 Only Systemic Change Will Do (F. Mike Miles) Ignoring System Principles A Different System Key Obstacles to Systemic Change The Navarré Point Other Obstacles How to Change the System Eight Principles of a New Education System Learning Happens Everywhere and Anytime Learning Is Personalized, and Students Own Their Learning Parents Have Access to an Expanded Number of Choices of Schools and Programs The System Offers a New Employee Value Proposition, and Compensation Is Tied to What the System Values Most Learning Increasingly Is Focused on How to Think and How to Learn The School, Community, and Family Provide Students With a Set of Required Experiences, Not Just Specific Courses Community Groups Are Tapped to Educate Students in Many Non-Core Subjects Governing Entities Check and Balance One Another and Encourage Innovation At the Operational Level A Focus on Outcomes Alignment Throughout the Organization Accountability Support Monitoring Progress Budget Priorities Compensation and Incentives Capacity Leadership Density System Principles Vision for the Future The Pace of Change Adaptability A Model for Systemic Reform The Pace of Change Reimagined Schools? Table 9.1. Nascent Level Table 9.2. Progressing Level Table 9.3. Proficient Level Table 9.4. Advanced Level References Index About the Editors and Contributors

Editorial Reviews

This book is a comprehensive and timely record of historic and more recent interventions in education targeted at mitigating inequities and inequalities, which stem from both inadequate school funding and historical injustices in opportunities, especially for low-income families. I especially appreciated examples of successful programming which did not rely only on availability of funds but used other, evidence-based and robust interventions. This is an invaluable resource which covers a wide range of applications to improve outcome for learners—from early childhood to transition to adulthood—and appeals to a wide range of audiences. It could be especially valuable to those who are tasked with making decisions about the efficient allocation of limited resources: school districts administrators, school counselors, members of school boards, as well as decision-makers at a local, state and federal levels. I will definitely use it in my program evaluation and economics of education courses.

Margarita Pivovarova

Having been an elementary, middle school, and high school teacher for many years, as well as now being a professor of education and a director of an elementary education program, I must say that the chapters edited for this volume successfully discuss a number of issues that have plagued our educational system for years. In doing so, the editors have offered previously dismissed and/or ignored perspectives the necessary space to share new possibilities in ameliorating the short-comings of such a system. Some of the ideas presented are not easy for educational leaders like myself to hear; yet, we must make room for them if we want to operate using a more holistic understanding of the complexities that frame and characterize our work. In short, this book is a must-have resource for anyone serious about educational policy, school administration, or classroom teaching.

Luciano Cid

Too much decision-making in education ignores evidence and data. The underlying theme of The Economics of Equity in K-12 Education is that we know more about effective education than we are using. The systematic discussion of the various pieces of evidence in this book could potentially lead to significant improvements in educational outcomes. We can only hope that decision-makers take the messages of this book to heart.

Eric Hanushek

The struggle in education has always been how to provide a quality education that is both equitable and efficient. The Economics of Equity in K-12 Education provides a first look at the key topics relative to this issue.

Craig A. Schilling

A review of the measurable impact of current, post-pandemic issues as they relate to financing K-12 education, this book covers a broad range of issues and endeavors to quantify the impact of each from a perspective that considers equity and financial success. The Economics of Equity in K-12 Education has the potential to significantly inform practice in the public school sector.

Tammy T. White

In today’s public policy conversations, the word 'equity' is all the rage. But all too often, 'equity' serves as little more than a buzzword to cover highly ideological claims. Goldy Brown III’s and Christos Makridis’ book is quite different. By taking steady and unswerving aim at the research evidence on costs and benefits, they bring a level of concrete sensibility to a conversation that’s sorely needed by policymakers.

Max Eden

America's schools face unprecedented challenges as a result of the pandemic and the decline in trust in schools and educators. This timely book provides a sober, research-based look at the evidence on what works in education and provides solid guidance on the work that is needed in the years ahead.

Raymond Domanico

A review of the measurable impact of current, post-pandemic issues as they relate to financing K-12 education, this book covers a broad range of issues and endeavors to quantify the impact of each from a perspective that considers equity and financial success. The Economics of Equity in K-12 Education has the potential to significantly inform practice in the public school sector.

America's schools face unprecedented challenges as a result of the pandemic and the decline in trust in schools and educators. This timely book provides a sober, research-based look at the evidence on what works in education and provides solid guidance on the work that is needed in the years ahead.

Having been an elementary, middle school, and high school teacher for many years, as well as now being a professor of education and a director of an elementary education program, I must say that the chapters edited for this volume successfully discuss a number of issues that have plagued our educational system for years. In doing so, the editors have offered previously dismissed and/or ignored perspectives the necessary space to share new possibilities in ameliorating the short-comings of such a system. Some of the ideas presented are not easy for educational leaders like myself to hear; yet, we must make room for them if we want to operate using a more holistic understanding of the complexities that frame and characterize our work. In short, this book is a must-have resource for anyone serious about educational policy, school administration, or classroom teaching.

In today's public policy conversations, the word 'equity' is all the rage. But all too often, 'equity' serves as little more than a buzzword to cover highly ideological claims. Goldy Brown III's and Christos Makridis' book is quite different. By taking steady and unswerving aim at the research evidence on costs and benefits, they bring a level of concrete sensibility to a conversation that's sorely needed by policymakers.

Promoting educational freedom is a necessary ingredient to ensure the rising generation has an opportunity to live the American Dream. The contributors of this book make a solid case for improving K-12 Education, most notably through the need for widespread school choice.

The struggle in education has always been how to provide a quality education that is both equitable and efficient. The Economics of Equity in K-12 Education provides a first look at the key topics relative to this issue.

This book is a comprehensive and timely record of historic and more recent interventions in education targeted at mitigating inequities and inequalities, which stem from both inadequate school funding and historical injustices in opportunities, especially for low-income families. I especially appreciated examples of successful programming which did not rely only on availability of funds but used other, evidence-based and robust interventions. This is an invaluable resource which covers a wide range of applications to improve outcome for learners--from early childhood to transition to adulthood--and appeals to a wide range of audiences. It could be especially valuable to those who are tasked with making decisions about the efficient allocation of limited resources: school districts administrators, school counselors, members of school boards, as well as decision-makers at a local, state and federal levels. I will definitely use it in my program evaluation and economics of education courses.

This book rips the cover off the idea that just providing more money is what is needed--asserting that the money needs to be strategically targeted or those on the margins will continue to remain there. Going beyond surface fixes for various issues in providing equitable education, The Economics of Equity in P12 Education examines needed changes in policies affecting education and the very structure of education itself to maximize impact. If the playing field is ever going to be leveled and equitable education achieved, this is where educational policy makers must start.

This text synthesizes recent research in the economics of education, particularly focused on economic evaluation and program evaluation literature, with two new lenses--one focused on equity, and the other on systemic factors (things like teachers, data infrastructure, and choice) that moderate which policies are adopted and how--that provide a more unifying conceptual framework with considerations for policy than most such compendia of research.

This volume will help education stakeholders and policy makers navigate promising, evidence-based policy options.

Too much decision-making in education ignores evidence and data. The underlying theme of The Economics of Equity in K-12 Education is that we know more about effective education than we are using. The systematic discussion of the various pieces of evidence in this book could potentially lead to significant improvements in educational outcomes. We can only hope that decision-makers take the messages of this book to heart.

From the Publisher

This book rips the cover off the idea that just providing more money is what is needed—asserting that the money needs to be strategically targeted or those on the margins will continue to remain there. Going beyond surface fixes for various issues in providing equitable education, The Economics of Equity in P12 Education examines needed changes in policies affecting education and the very structure of education itself to maximize impact. If the playing field is ever going to be leveled and equitable education achieved, this is where educational policy makers must start.

Elizabeth Timmerman Lugg

This volume will help education stakeholders and policy makers navigate promising, evidence-based policy options.

Sofoklis Goulas

Promoting educational freedom is a necessary ingredient to ensure the rising generation has an opportunity to live the American Dream. The contributors of this book make a solid case for improving K-12 Education, most notably through the need for widespread school choice.

Ian Rowe

This text synthesizes recent research in the economics of education, particularly focused on economic evaluation and program evaluation literature, with two new lenses—one focused on equity, and the other on systemic factors (things like teachers, data infrastructure, and choice) that moderate which policies are adopted and how—that provide a more unifying conceptual framework with considerations for policy than most such compendia of research.

Robert Shand