5
1
9780226060217
By Magnus Blomstrom
All right reserved.
ISBN: 0226060217
Financial Sector Profitability and Double-Gearing
Mitsuhiro Fukao
The Japanese economy's average annual real growth rate was only 0.8 percent from 1991 to 2001. Reflecting the weak economy, Japan has not been able to restore stability in its financial sector even though more than a decade has passed since the 1980s bubble. The Bank of Japan (BOJ) has had a zero nominal interest rate policy most of the time since February 1999, but it has been ineffective because of deflation. By the end of 2001, the gross domestic product (GDP) deflator was about 7 percent below its 1994 peak when adjusted for the 1997 consumption tax hike. The index was falling at annual rate of 1.5 percent at the end of 2001. Given the estimated 6 percent deflationary GDP gap and the near-zero real growth in 2002, deflation is likely to accelerate to more than 2.0 percent by early 2003 (see Japan Center for Economic Research [JCER] 2002, chapter 1).
In this chapter, I show that Japan will not be able to have a viable banking sector without stopping deflation. The banking industry has not shown a profit since fiscal 1993 (ended March 1994) if one excludes capital gains from stock and real estate portfolios. Interest margins have been too low to cover the increase in loan losses brought about by the weak economy.
Banks cannot raise margins for several reasons: competition with subsidized government-sponsored financial institutions (GFIs); intense political pressure, backed by the Financial Services Agency (FSA), to make new loans to small and medium companies; and deflation-weakened borrowers. I expect that the Japanese government will have to nationalize most of the banking sector by 2005. Capital injections will not solve the problems.
Established Japanese life insurance companies also face a serious situation. In the 1980s and early 1990s they promised high minimum yields on long-term contracts. For whatever reason, the companies did not match these long-term liabilities with long-term fixed-income investments. Under the BOJ zero-interest rate policy, insurers thus are suffering large negative carry. ("Carry" is the industry term for the difference between a product's income and its associated costs).
A complicating factor in this dire picture is banks and life insurance companies providing each other capital-a practice called double-gearing. Weakened banks ask insurance companies to provide equity capital and subordinated loans. In return, the mutual life insurers ask banks to subscribe their surplus notes (similar to nonvoting redeemable preferred shares) and subordinated debt. When Chiyoda Life failed in October 2000, Tokai Bank lost ¥74 billion. The FSA actively encourages this dangerous practice. Thus, Shokichi Takagi, director of FSA's Supervision Department, has publicly stated that double-gearing among financial institutions is highly beneficial to enhance public confidence ("Under-Capitalized Banks Are Not Likely Even after Special Examinations: Interview with Mr. Takagi, Head of Supervision Dept. of FSA," Nihon Keizai Shinbun, 27 November 2001, p. 7).
The life insurers' problem is easier to solve than the banks' problem. Using a reorganization procedure, life insurance companies can fail and cut promised interest rates on their policies. On the other hand, bank runs would ensue if the government did not fully pay the depositors of a failed large bank because a large part of the banking sector is either insolvent or very nearly so. In such a situation, the government would have to bear the full brunt of defaulting loans at a time when its own debt to GDP ratio is rising by 10 percentage points a year. If things continue as they are, the Japanese government is unlikely to maintain investment-grade credit ratings on its bonds.
The chapter continues with an analysis of banks' bad loans and their underreserving for them. The deteriorating condition of banks is then considered, and the causes of bank unprofitability examined. As part of this, the effects of deregulation and the role of government-sponsored financial institutions is considered. Turning to life insurance companies, their problems and weak supervision are discussed. The risks of the banks and insurers engaging in double-gearing is then analyzed.
1.1 Banks' Bad Loans
Table 1.1 and table 1.2 show data on problem loans of Japanese banks. Japanese banks have acknowledged ¥82 trillion in losses from bad loans for the ten years through March 2002. In spite of this enormous loss, they still have more than ¥42 trillion of disclosed bad loans, about 8 percent of their loan portfolios.
I am one of the many who feel the disclosed figures understate the real situation. The FSA collects data on "classified loans," a broader concept of problem loans, but does not disclose it for individual banks. Under the FSA's Bank Examination Manual, banks are required to rate their loans, taking account of default risk and quality of collateral. There are four grades: normal, substandard, doubtful, and estimated-loss loans. The last three are considered classified loans. Banks then estimate their loan-loss reserves and the amount of write-offs. Because of the broader definition, the amount of classified loans is more than twice that of disclosed bad loans. Total classified loans for all banks was ¥71.1 trillion in March 2002.
1.1.1 Underreserving
Total loan loss reserves of Japanese banks have been low relative to those of U.S. banks. While U.S. bad loans declined from 3 percent of total loans in 1992 to 1 percent in 1999, the Japanese ratio rose from 2 percent to 6 percent (fig. 1.1). Loan-loss reserves in the United States have been above 160 percent of bad loans since 1994, while in Japan they have been in the 40 percent to 60 percent range (fig. 1.2). We can clearly see that although the U.S. banking sector recovered quickly from its bad-loan problems in early 1990s, the Japanese situation has been deteriorating even with the 1999 capital injection by the government.
Many analysts of Japanese banks suspect that the banks are not recording enough loan-loss reserves. This problem is exacerbated by the lenient reserving policy stipulated by the FSA Bank Examination Manual. Japanese banks usually calculate loan-loss reserves by dividing their loans into the FSA-mandated categories, then estimated losses for each group using the following time horizons.
1. Normal loans and substandard loans without arrears or reduced interest rates: expected one-year loss rate.
2. Substandard loans with arrears or reduced interest rates and doubtful loans: expected three-year loan loss rate.
Most loans are routinely rolled over, so the one-year figures understate the net present value of future losses over the true life of the loans in category 1. Thus, instead of a one-year rate, banks should reserve using, as a minimum, the three-year cumulative rate for all substandard loans.
To estimate more appropriate reserve figures, I have estimated required loan loss reserves based on FSA data of classified loans. A Bank of Japan (1997) sample study looked at the actual subsequent loan losses of eighteen banks for each category of classified loans on their fiscal 1993 reports (table 1.3). At the end of three years (in March 1997) about 17 percent of substandard loans and over 75 percent of doubtful loans had been lost and almost 100 percent of estimated loss loans.
These figures indicate that banks should keep larger loan loss reserves. I have calculated estimated reserves requirements based on 20 percent of substandard loans, 70 percent of doubtful loans, and 1 percent of normal loans. This last is because of the migration of normal loans to classified loans. The results are in table 1.2, row C.
By comparing rows C and D, we can estimate the lower bound of under-reserving (row C minus row D). Although substantially below the estimated 1997 level, underreserving remains large.
1.2 The Banks' Deteriorating Condition
Figure 1.3 provides further evidence of the deteriorating condition of banks. Although the bad-loan to total-loan ratio has stabilized for city banks, for first- and second-tier regional banks it has been increasing rapidly. The large 1995 increase for regional banks in part reflects changes in disclosure requirements, but the trend since is due primarily to deteriorating loan quality.
Corresponding to the flow (profit) figures, the capital position of Japanese banks has been deteriorating. Under Japanese accounting rules for banks and lenient application by the regulators, Bank for International Settlements (BIS) capital ratios have been manipulated in many ways.
First, banks have underreserved against bad loans, as explained above. This tends to increase bank core capital by the same amount.
Second, banks have large deferred-tax assets on their balance sheets even though they have been losing money continually since 1993 and loss carry-forwards are limited to five years. There is little prospect of utilizing the deferred-tax asset by showing genuine profit in the near future, so it should be written off.
Continues...
Introduction
Magnus Blomström, Jennifer Corbett, Fumio Hayashi, and Anil Kashyap
1. Financial Sector Profitability and Double-Gearing
Mitsuhiro Fukao
2. Paying for the FILP
Takero Doi and Takeo Hoshi
3. The Deteriorating Fiscal Situation and an Aging Population
Robert Dekle
4. Mismeasurement of the CPI
Kenn Ariga and Kenji Matsui
5. Regulation, Distribution Efficiency, and Retail Density
David Flath
6. Inefficiency of Corporate Investment and Distortion of Savings Behavior in Japan
Albert Ando, Dimitrios Christelis, and Tsutomu Miyagawa
7. Is Japan's Innovative Capacity in Decline?
Lee Branstetter and Yoshiaki Nakamura
8. Constraints on the Level and Effective Use of Labor
Hiroshi Ono and Marcus E. Rebick
9. An International Perspective of Corporate Groups and Their Prospects
Yishay Yafeh
Contributors
Author Index
Subject Index
Structural Impediments to Growth in Japan / Edition 1 available in Hardcover, eBook
Structural Impediments to Growth in Japan / Edition 1
by Magnus Blomstrom, Jennifer Corbett, Fumio Hayashi, Anil Kashyap
Magnus Blomstrom
- ISBN-10:
- 0226060217
- ISBN-13:
- 9780226060217
- Pub. Date:
- 11/05/2003
- Publisher:
- University of Chicago Press
- ISBN-10:
- 0226060217
- ISBN-13:
- 9780226060217
- Pub. Date:
- 11/05/2003
- Publisher:
- University of Chicago Press
Structural Impediments to Growth in Japan / Edition 1
by Magnus Blomstrom, Jennifer Corbett, Fumio Hayashi, Anil Kashyap
Magnus Blomstrom
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Overview
As Japan's decade-long economic stagnation continues, there has been much analysis of the immediate macroeconomic problems that confront the Japanese economy. This book looks past the short-run challenges to the future of Japan and highlights the intermediate and longer-term issues that country faces.
In this, the first book-length academic treatment of this important issue, a team of notable contributors present nine papers, offering a comprehensive assessment of those economic difficulties and addressing a range of specific issues, from financial restructuring and the impact of the aging Japanese population to corporate behavior, public lending, employment practices, and innovative capacity. In each paper, contributors clearly identify and outline problems and concerns, carefully pose provocative questions, and in many instances present concrete suggestions for improvement.
The resulting volume is a timely and important examination of critical issues for Japan's stalling economy, packed with both telling data and expert analysis and offering valuable perspectives on Japan's current obstacles.
In this, the first book-length academic treatment of this important issue, a team of notable contributors present nine papers, offering a comprehensive assessment of those economic difficulties and addressing a range of specific issues, from financial restructuring and the impact of the aging Japanese population to corporate behavior, public lending, employment practices, and innovative capacity. In each paper, contributors clearly identify and outline problems and concerns, carefully pose provocative questions, and in many instances present concrete suggestions for improvement.
The resulting volume is a timely and important examination of critical issues for Japan's stalling economy, packed with both telling data and expert analysis and offering valuable perspectives on Japan's current obstacles.
Product Details
| ISBN-13: | 9780226060217 |
|---|---|
| Publisher: | University of Chicago Press |
| Publication date: | 11/05/2003 |
| Series: | National Bureau of Economic Research Conference Report |
| Edition description: | 1 |
| Pages: | 272 |
| Product dimensions: | 6.00(w) x 9.00(h) x 0.90(d) |
About the Author
Magnus Blomström is a professor at the European Institute of Japanese Studies and the Stockholm School of Economics.
Jennifer Corbett is a reader at the University of Oxford and professor at Australian National University.
Fumio Hayashi is a professor in the faculty of economics at the University of Tokyo.
Anil Kashyap is the Edward Eagle Brown Professor of Economics and Finance in the Graduate School of Business at the University of Chicago.
Jennifer Corbett is a reader at the University of Oxford and professor at Australian National University.
Fumio Hayashi is a professor in the faculty of economics at the University of Tokyo.
Anil Kashyap is the Edward Eagle Brown Professor of Economics and Finance in the Graduate School of Business at the University of Chicago.
Read an Excerpt
Structural Impediments to Growth in Japan
By Magnus Blomstrom
University of Chicago Press
Copyright © 2003 Magnus BlomstromAll right reserved.
ISBN: 0226060217
Financial Sector Profitability and Double-Gearing
Mitsuhiro Fukao
The Japanese economy's average annual real growth rate was only 0.8 percent from 1991 to 2001. Reflecting the weak economy, Japan has not been able to restore stability in its financial sector even though more than a decade has passed since the 1980s bubble. The Bank of Japan (BOJ) has had a zero nominal interest rate policy most of the time since February 1999, but it has been ineffective because of deflation. By the end of 2001, the gross domestic product (GDP) deflator was about 7 percent below its 1994 peak when adjusted for the 1997 consumption tax hike. The index was falling at annual rate of 1.5 percent at the end of 2001. Given the estimated 6 percent deflationary GDP gap and the near-zero real growth in 2002, deflation is likely to accelerate to more than 2.0 percent by early 2003 (see Japan Center for Economic Research [JCER] 2002, chapter 1).
In this chapter, I show that Japan will not be able to have a viable banking sector without stopping deflation. The banking industry has not shown a profit since fiscal 1993 (ended March 1994) if one excludes capital gains from stock and real estate portfolios. Interest margins have been too low to cover the increase in loan losses brought about by the weak economy.
Banks cannot raise margins for several reasons: competition with subsidized government-sponsored financial institutions (GFIs); intense political pressure, backed by the Financial Services Agency (FSA), to make new loans to small and medium companies; and deflation-weakened borrowers. I expect that the Japanese government will have to nationalize most of the banking sector by 2005. Capital injections will not solve the problems.
Established Japanese life insurance companies also face a serious situation. In the 1980s and early 1990s they promised high minimum yields on long-term contracts. For whatever reason, the companies did not match these long-term liabilities with long-term fixed-income investments. Under the BOJ zero-interest rate policy, insurers thus are suffering large negative carry. ("Carry" is the industry term for the difference between a product's income and its associated costs).
A complicating factor in this dire picture is banks and life insurance companies providing each other capital-a practice called double-gearing. Weakened banks ask insurance companies to provide equity capital and subordinated loans. In return, the mutual life insurers ask banks to subscribe their surplus notes (similar to nonvoting redeemable preferred shares) and subordinated debt. When Chiyoda Life failed in October 2000, Tokai Bank lost ¥74 billion. The FSA actively encourages this dangerous practice. Thus, Shokichi Takagi, director of FSA's Supervision Department, has publicly stated that double-gearing among financial institutions is highly beneficial to enhance public confidence ("Under-Capitalized Banks Are Not Likely Even after Special Examinations: Interview with Mr. Takagi, Head of Supervision Dept. of FSA," Nihon Keizai Shinbun, 27 November 2001, p. 7).
The life insurers' problem is easier to solve than the banks' problem. Using a reorganization procedure, life insurance companies can fail and cut promised interest rates on their policies. On the other hand, bank runs would ensue if the government did not fully pay the depositors of a failed large bank because a large part of the banking sector is either insolvent or very nearly so. In such a situation, the government would have to bear the full brunt of defaulting loans at a time when its own debt to GDP ratio is rising by 10 percentage points a year. If things continue as they are, the Japanese government is unlikely to maintain investment-grade credit ratings on its bonds.
The chapter continues with an analysis of banks' bad loans and their underreserving for them. The deteriorating condition of banks is then considered, and the causes of bank unprofitability examined. As part of this, the effects of deregulation and the role of government-sponsored financial institutions is considered. Turning to life insurance companies, their problems and weak supervision are discussed. The risks of the banks and insurers engaging in double-gearing is then analyzed.
1.1 Banks' Bad Loans
Table 1.1 and table 1.2 show data on problem loans of Japanese banks. Japanese banks have acknowledged ¥82 trillion in losses from bad loans for the ten years through March 2002. In spite of this enormous loss, they still have more than ¥42 trillion of disclosed bad loans, about 8 percent of their loan portfolios.
I am one of the many who feel the disclosed figures understate the real situation. The FSA collects data on "classified loans," a broader concept of problem loans, but does not disclose it for individual banks. Under the FSA's Bank Examination Manual, banks are required to rate their loans, taking account of default risk and quality of collateral. There are four grades: normal, substandard, doubtful, and estimated-loss loans. The last three are considered classified loans. Banks then estimate their loan-loss reserves and the amount of write-offs. Because of the broader definition, the amount of classified loans is more than twice that of disclosed bad loans. Total classified loans for all banks was ¥71.1 trillion in March 2002.
1.1.1 Underreserving
Total loan loss reserves of Japanese banks have been low relative to those of U.S. banks. While U.S. bad loans declined from 3 percent of total loans in 1992 to 1 percent in 1999, the Japanese ratio rose from 2 percent to 6 percent (fig. 1.1). Loan-loss reserves in the United States have been above 160 percent of bad loans since 1994, while in Japan they have been in the 40 percent to 60 percent range (fig. 1.2). We can clearly see that although the U.S. banking sector recovered quickly from its bad-loan problems in early 1990s, the Japanese situation has been deteriorating even with the 1999 capital injection by the government.
Many analysts of Japanese banks suspect that the banks are not recording enough loan-loss reserves. This problem is exacerbated by the lenient reserving policy stipulated by the FSA Bank Examination Manual. Japanese banks usually calculate loan-loss reserves by dividing their loans into the FSA-mandated categories, then estimated losses for each group using the following time horizons.
1. Normal loans and substandard loans without arrears or reduced interest rates: expected one-year loss rate.
2. Substandard loans with arrears or reduced interest rates and doubtful loans: expected three-year loan loss rate.
Most loans are routinely rolled over, so the one-year figures understate the net present value of future losses over the true life of the loans in category 1. Thus, instead of a one-year rate, banks should reserve using, as a minimum, the three-year cumulative rate for all substandard loans.
To estimate more appropriate reserve figures, I have estimated required loan loss reserves based on FSA data of classified loans. A Bank of Japan (1997) sample study looked at the actual subsequent loan losses of eighteen banks for each category of classified loans on their fiscal 1993 reports (table 1.3). At the end of three years (in March 1997) about 17 percent of substandard loans and over 75 percent of doubtful loans had been lost and almost 100 percent of estimated loss loans.
These figures indicate that banks should keep larger loan loss reserves. I have calculated estimated reserves requirements based on 20 percent of substandard loans, 70 percent of doubtful loans, and 1 percent of normal loans. This last is because of the migration of normal loans to classified loans. The results are in table 1.2, row C.
By comparing rows C and D, we can estimate the lower bound of under-reserving (row C minus row D). Although substantially below the estimated 1997 level, underreserving remains large.
1.2 The Banks' Deteriorating Condition
Figure 1.3 provides further evidence of the deteriorating condition of banks. Although the bad-loan to total-loan ratio has stabilized for city banks, for first- and second-tier regional banks it has been increasing rapidly. The large 1995 increase for regional banks in part reflects changes in disclosure requirements, but the trend since is due primarily to deteriorating loan quality.
Corresponding to the flow (profit) figures, the capital position of Japanese banks has been deteriorating. Under Japanese accounting rules for banks and lenient application by the regulators, Bank for International Settlements (BIS) capital ratios have been manipulated in many ways.
First, banks have underreserved against bad loans, as explained above. This tends to increase bank core capital by the same amount.
Second, banks have large deferred-tax assets on their balance sheets even though they have been losing money continually since 1993 and loss carry-forwards are limited to five years. There is little prospect of utilizing the deferred-tax asset by showing genuine profit in the near future, so it should be written off.
Continues...
Excerpted from Structural Impediments to Growth in Japan by Magnus Blomstrom Copyright © 2003 by Magnus Blomstrom. Excerpted by permission.
All rights reserved. No part of this excerpt may be reproduced or reprinted without permission in writing from the publisher.
Excerpts are provided by Dial-A-Book Inc. solely for the personal use of visitors to this web site.
Table of Contents
PrefaceIntroduction
Magnus Blomström, Jennifer Corbett, Fumio Hayashi, and Anil Kashyap
1. Financial Sector Profitability and Double-Gearing
Mitsuhiro Fukao
2. Paying for the FILP
Takero Doi and Takeo Hoshi
3. The Deteriorating Fiscal Situation and an Aging Population
Robert Dekle
4. Mismeasurement of the CPI
Kenn Ariga and Kenji Matsui
5. Regulation, Distribution Efficiency, and Retail Density
David Flath
6. Inefficiency of Corporate Investment and Distortion of Savings Behavior in Japan
Albert Ando, Dimitrios Christelis, and Tsutomu Miyagawa
7. Is Japan's Innovative Capacity in Decline?
Lee Branstetter and Yoshiaki Nakamura
8. Constraints on the Level and Effective Use of Labor
Hiroshi Ono and Marcus E. Rebick
9. An International Perspective of Corporate Groups and Their Prospects
Yishay Yafeh
Contributors
Author Index
Subject Index
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