| Preface | xi |
Chapter 1 | Introduction | 1 |
1.1 | Brief History of Optics and Quantum Electronics | 1 |
1.2 | Brief History of Physics and Alternating Growth of Science and Technology | 4 |
1.3 | Brief History of Optical Fiber Amplifiers | 9 |
1.4 | Brief History of Optical Communications, Transmission Media, and Optical Fibers | 16 |
1.4.1 | Early History of Optical Communications | 16 |
1.4.2 | Various Transmission Media 1960-1969 | 18 |
1.4.3 | Optical Fibers From 1966 | 23 |
1.4.4 | Alternating Growth of Passive Fiber Technology and Active Fiber Technology | 32 |
| References | 42 |
Chapter 2 | Outline of Optical Fiber Amplifiers | 55 |
2.1 | Application Systems and Requirements for Optical Fiber Amplifiers | 55 |
2.2 | Outline of Rare-Earth Ions and Amplification in Fibers | 58 |
2.2.1 | Host Glasses | 58 |
2.2.2 | Rare-Earth Ions and Their Transitions | 63 |
2.2.3 | Outline of Amplification in Rare-Earth-Doped Fiber | 68 |
2.3 | Key Issues for Erbium-Doped Fiber Amplifiers | 77 |
2.3.1 | Broadband | 77 |
2.3.2 | High Gain | 85 |
2.3.3 | Low Noise | 87 |
2.3.4 | High Power | 93 |
2.3.5 | Reliability | 96 |
2.4 | Key Issues Regarding Praseodymium-Doped Fiber Amplifiers | 99 |
2.5 | Other Wavelength Amplifiers | 103 |
2.6 | Key Issues Regarding Fabrication Technologies and Material Structures | 108 |
2.6.1 | Fabrication Processes of Rare-Earth-Doped Fibers | 108 |
2.6.2 | Material Structures of Rare-Earth-Doped Glasses and Their Effects on Amplification Characteristics | 115 |
2.7 | Recent Topics on Amplified Systems | 118 |
2.7.1 | Unrepeated Long-Span Transmission | 119 |
2.7.2 | Long-Distance Transmission | 120 |
2.7.3 | WDM, Long-Distance, and/or High-Speed Transmission | 125 |
2.7.4 | Optical Networking | 128 |
2.7.5 | 1.3-[mu]m Transmission | 129 |
| References | 132 |
Chapter 3 | Rare-Earth Ions in Glasses and Transitions for Optical Amplification | 149 |
3.1 | Introduction | 149 |
3.2 | The Configuration of the 4f States in Condensed Materials | 150 |
3.3 | The Judd-Ofelt Theory for Determining Transition Intensities | 155 |
3.3.1 | The Judd-Ofelt Theory | 155 |
3.3.2 | Selection Rules From the Judd-Ofelt Theory | 160 |
3.3.3 | Other Multiple Transitions | 163 |
3.3.4 | Experimental Procedure for Obtaining [Omega] Parameters | 164 |
3.4 | Other Procedures for Obtaining Emission Cross Sections | 167 |
3.5 | Energy Transfer Phenomena Between Rare Earths | 169 |
3.5.1 | Formalism of Resonance Energy Transfer Between Rare Earths | 169 |
3.5.2 | Concentration Quenching | 173 |
3.6 | Nonradiative Relaxation by the Multiphonon Emission Process | 175 |
3.7 | Spectral Broadening Phenomena | 178 |
3.8 | Three- and Four-Level Amplifier Systems | 182 |
3.8.1 | Population Inversion | 183 |
3.8.2 | Gain Saturation | 187 |
| References | 189 |
Chapter 4 | Fiber Materials and Fabrications | 193 |
4.1 | Fiber Materials and Compositions | 194 |
4.1.1 | Oxide Glass | 197 |
4.1.2 | Halide Glass | 199 |
4.1.3 | Chalcogenide Glass | 200 |
4.1.4 | Crystals | 201 |
4.2 | Transmission Loss of Fiber Materials | 201 |
4.2.1 | Intrinsic Loss Factors | 204 |
4.2.2 | Extrinsic Loss Factors | 222 |
4.3 | Thermal Properties of Fiber Materials | 227 |
4.3.1 | Glass Structure and Chemical Bonds | 227 |
4.3.2 | Theory and Kinetics of Crystallization | 237 |
4.4 | High-Silica Fiber Fabrication Process and Rare-Earth Doping | 259 |
4.4.1 | Soot Process: Origin of High-Silica Glass Fabrication Process | 259 |
4.4.2 | MCVD Process and Rare-Earth Doping | 265 |
4.4.3 | Rare-Earth Doping in MCVD Process | 274 |
4.4.4 | VAD Process | 279 |
4.4.5 | Rare-Earth Doping in VAD Process | 320 |
4.4.6 | OVD Process | 321 |
4.4.7 | High-Silica Fiber Drawing | 321 |
4.5 | Multicomponent Glass Fiber Fabrication Process | 325 |
4.6 | Fluoride Fiber Fabrication Process | 327 |
4.6.1 | Glass Compositions | 330 |
4.6.2 | Fabrication Process | 331 |
4.6.3 | Characteristics | 344 |
4.6.4 | Vapor Phase Deposition | 351 |
4.7 | Chalcogenide Fiber Fabrication Process | 352 |
4.7.1 | Glass Compositions | 353 |
4.7.2 | Fabrication Process | 356 |
4.7.3 | Characteristics | 364 |
4.8 | Crystalline Fiber Fabrication Process | 371 |
4.9 | Reliability of Amplifier Host Fibers | 375 |
4.9.1 | Reliability Requirements | 375 |
4.9.2 | Catastrophic Failure of Optical Fibers Caused by Chemical and Mechanical Stresses | 376 |
4.9.3 | Hydrogen-Induced Loss Increase | 386 |
4.9.4 | Loss Increase due to y-Ray Irradiation | 387 |
| References | 389 |
Chapter 5 | Amplification Characteristics of a Fiber Amplifier: Components, Design, and Amplification Characteristics of a Fiber Amplifier Module | 405 |
5.1 | Introduction | 405 |
5.2 | Fiber Amplifier Related Devices | 406 |
5.2.1 | Fiber Grating | 406 |
5.2.2 | Thermally Expanded Core Fiber | 408 |
5.2.3 | Filters | 411 |
5.2.4 | Isolators and Circulators | 415 |
5.2.5 | Pump/Signal Multiplexing Devices | 421 |
5.2.6 | Splicing Devices and Technology | 424 |
5.2.7 | Pump Source | 428 |
5.3 | Amplification Characteristics of Fiber Amplifier Modules | 447 |
5.3.1 | 1.5-[mu]m-Band Fiber Amplifier | 447 |
5.3.2 | 1.3-[mu]m-Band Fiber Amplifier | 522 |
5.3.3 | 1.4-[mu]m- and 1.65-[mu]m-Band Fiber Amplifiers | 571 |
| References | 582 |
Chapter 6 | Conclusion | 601 |
| About the Authors | 605 |
| Index | 609 |