Table of Contents
Preface xiv
A Note on Culture and Language xxiii
Chapter 1 The Necessity of Intercultural Communication 1
The Need for Intercultural Communication 3
Benefits of Intercultural Communication 5
Healthy Communities 5
Increased Commerce 5
Reduced Conflict 6
Personal Growth Through Tolerance 6
Diversity in the United States 6
Human Communication 8
The Nature of Human Communication 8
Human Communication Apprehension 10
The Nature of Culture 12
Accumulated Pattern of Values, Beliefs, and Behaviors 13
An Identifiable Group of People With a Common History 14
Verbal and Nonverbal Symbol Systems 14
Microcuttural Groups 15
The Study of Intercultural Communication 16
A Contextual Model of Intercultural Communication 17
Intercultural Communication and Uncertainty 21
Intercultural Communication Apprehension 22
Fundamental Assumptions About Intercultural Communication 24
The Ethics of Intercultural Communication 28
Five Approaches to Determining Which Behaviors Are Ethical 30
The Utilitarian Approach 30
The Rights Approach 30
The Fairness or Social Justice Approach 31
The Common Good Approach 31
The Virtues Approach 31
Ethical Principles of Eastern Cultures 32
Confucianism 32
Hinduism 32
The Goal: Intercultural Communication Competence 33
An Integrated Model and Measure of intercultural Communication Competence 34
Chapter Summary 37
Discussion Questions 38
Developing Intercultural Communication Competence 38
Key Terms 39
Chapter 2 The Cultural Context 40
Individualism-Collectivism 42
Individualism 44
Collectivism 45
Individualism Versus Collectivism? 45
So Who's an Individualist, and Who's a Collectivist? 45
Patterns of individualism and Collectivism Across the United States 48
Communication Consequences of Individualism-Collectivism 48
Vertical and Horizontal Individualism and Collectivism 50
The Pancultural Self 53
High- and Low-Context Communication 56
Characteristics of High- and Low-Context Cultures 57
Communication Consequences of Low- and High-Context Cultural Orientations 58
Value Orientations 62
Schwartz Theory of Basic Values 64
Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck's Value Orientations 67
The Self 67
The Family 69
Society 69
Human Nature 69
Nature 70
The Supernatural 70
Power Distance 71
Measuring Power Distance 72
Communication and Power Distance 73
Uncertainty Avoidance 77
A Theory of Uncertainty Orientation 78
Long Term-Short Term Orientation 80
Chapter Summary 82
Discussion Questions 82
Ethical Considerations Within the Cultural Context 83
Developing Intercultural Communication Competence 83
Key Terms 84
Chapter 3 The Microcultural Context 86
Microcultural Group Status 88
Muted Microcultural Groups 90
Microcultures in the United States 91
Hispanics/Latinos 91
So Who Is Hispanic/Latino? 92
Cultural Values and Communication of Hispanics/Latinos 92
Stereotypes of Hispanics/Latinos 93
Black Americans 95
Black American Communication 95
Stereotypes of Black Americans 96
Asian Americans 96
Asian American Values 97
Asian American Values and Communication Styles 98
Stereotypes of Asian Americans: The Model Minority 99
Normative Communication Styles of Black Americans, Asian Americans, and Hispanics/Latinos 99
Native Americans/American Indians 99
Communication Patterns of Native Americans/American Indians 102
Stereotypes of Native Americans/American Indians 103
Arab Americans 105
Communication Patterns of Arab Americans 106
Stereotypes of Arab Americans 106
Lesbian, Gay. Bisexual, Transgender, and Queer/Questioning Microcultural Groups 107
Gayspeak: Communication of the LGBTQ Microcuiture 110
Chapter Summary 112
Discussion Questions 113
Ethical Issues and Microcultures 113
Developing Intercultural Communication Competence 113
Key Terms 114
Chapter 4 The Environmental Context 116
Environments and Information Load 119
Culture and the Natural Environment 120
Worldviews of the Natural Environment 121
Natural Disasters as Cultural and Social Events 122
The Built Environment 124
Cross-Cultural Comparisons of Housing 127
Japanese Housing 127
American Navajo Housing 129
Muslim Homes 131
Privacy 131
Perceptions of Privacy in the United States 133
Cross-Cultural Variations on Privacy 135
Online Privacy Across Cultures 137
Monochrome Versus Polychrome Time Orientation 144
Consequences of Monochrome and Polychronic Orientations 146
Chapter Summary 151
Discussion Questions 152
Ethics and the Environmental Context 152
Developing Intercultural Communication Competence 153
Key Terms 153
Chapter 5 The Perceptual Context 154
Culture and Cognition 157
The Geography of Thought 158
A Model of Human information Processing 159
Stage #1 Input/Sensation 159
Stage #2 Storage/Memory 161
Stage #3 Recall/Retrieval 162
Cross-Cultural Differences in Memory and Retrieval 163
Categorization and Mental Economy 164
Stereotyping 165
U.S. Stereotypes 166
Media Influence on Stereotypes 170
Why Stereotype? 173
Stereotypes and Expectations 175
Ethnocentrism 178
A Contemporary Conceptualization of Ethnocentrism 179
Ethnocentrism, Intercultural Communication, and Interpersonal Perception 180
Ethnocentrism and Communication in the Workplace 181
Ethnocentrism and Racism 182
Chapter Summary 183
Discussion Questions 184
Ethics and the Perceptual Context 184
Developing Intercultural Competence 184
Key Terms 185
Chapter 6 The Sociorelational Context 186
Dimensions of Group Variability 188
Membership and Nonmembership Groups 188
In-Groups and Out-Groups 189
Reference Groups 190
Role Relationships 191
Role Differentiation and Stratification 195
Family Groups 198
Hmong 200
Korea 201
Israel 202
Mosuo 202
Kenya 203
Sex and Gender Groups 204
Sex and Gender Roles Across Cultures 207
Japan 207
India 208
China 209
Mexico 210
Israel 211
Chapter Summary 212
Discussion Questions 212
Ethics and the Sociorelational Context 212
Developing Intercultural Communication Competence 213
Key Terms 213
Chapter 7 The Verbal Code 214
The Relationship Between Language and Culture 216
Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis 216
The Structure of Human Language 218
Sounds and Symbols 218
Syntax and Universal Grammar 219
Universals of Language 223
Generative Grammar 224
The Gendering of Language: Are Languages Sexist? 226
Elaborated and Restricted Codes 227
Cross-Cultural Communication Styles 228
Direct and Indirect Styles 229
Elaborate, Exacting, and Succinct Styles 231
Personal and Contextual Styles 232
Instrumental and Affective Styles 234
Gendered Language Style Across Cultures 236
Language and Ethnic Identity 239
Do You Speak "American"? 241
Appalachian English 244
Cajun English 244
R-less or R-Dropping Dialects 244
California English 244
Texas English 245
The Midwest Accent? 245
Chapter Summary 246
Discussion Questions 246
Ethics and the Verbal Code 246
Developing Intercultural Communication Competence 247
Key Terms 247
Chapter 8 The Nonverbal Code 248
Definitions of Nonverbal Communication 250
Relationship Between Verbal and Nonverbal Codes 252
Formal Versus Informal Code Systems 252
Channels of Nonverbal Communication 253
Kinesics 253
Emblems and Illustrators 253
Affect Displays: Facial Expressions of Emotion 257
Cross-Racial Recognition of Faces 260
Regulators 261
Oculesics 262
Paralanguage 263
Proxemics 267
Haptics 269
Olfactics 272
Physical Appearance and Dress 276
Chronemics 280
Nonverbal Communication and Dimensions of Cultural Variability 280
Individualism-Collectivism 280
Power Distance 280
High and Low Context 281
Nonverbal Expectancy Violations Theory 281
Cultural Contexts and Nonverbal Expectancies 284
Chapter Summary 286
Discussion Questions 286
Ethics and the Nonverbal Code 287
Developing Intercultural Communication Competence 287
Key Terms 288
Chapter 9 Developing Intercultural Relationships 290
Communication and Uncertainty 292
Anxiety/Uncertainty Management Theory of Effective Communication 296
Uncertainty Reduction and Intercultural Communication Apprehension 299
Assessing Sociocommunicative Orientation or Style 301
Empathy and Similarity in Relationship Development 304
Empathy 304
Similarity 306
Perceptions of Relational Intimacy Across Cultures 308
Eastern and Western Cultures and Relationships 309
Interethnic, Interracial, and Intercultural Relationships and Marriages 310
Arranged Marriages 313
Marital Dissolution and Divorce Across Cultures 316
Intercultural Relational Maintenance 317
The Internet as Relational Maintenance 321
Japan 323
India 324
Africa 324
Mexico 325
Mate Selection and Desirability Across Cultures 325
Chapter Summary 330
Discussion Questions 331
Ethics and Intercultural Relationships 331
Developing intercultural Communication Competence 331
Key Terms 332
Chapter 10 Intercultural Conflict 334
Definition of Intercultural Conflict 335
Kim's Model of Intercultural Conflict 336
A Culture-Based Social Ecological Conflict Model 339
Intercultural Dialogue, Conflict Resolution, and a Culture of Peace 343
Face, Facework, and Conflict Communication Styles 345
Face 345
Facework 346
Conflict Communication Styles 348
The Intercultural Conflict Style Inventory 351
Individualistic and Collectivistic Approaches to Conflict 353
Conflict Resolution in High- Versus Low-Context Cultures 355
Resolving Cross-Cultural Conflict: A Contingency Model 357
Scenario #1 Late for Meetings 359
Scenario #2 Write a Paper or Give a Presentation? 360
Scenario #3 Too Much Touching 361
Scenario #4 Bribery? 361
Chapter Summary 362
Discussion Questions 362
Ethics and Intercultural Conflict 363
Developing Intercultural Communication Competence 363
Key Terms 363
Chapter 11 Intercultural Communication in Business, Health Care, and Educational Settings 364
Intercultural Management 367
Management Practices Across Cultures 370
Japanese Management Practices 372
German Management Practices 375
Mexican Management Practices 377
Chinese Management Practices 379
Culture, Intercultural Communication, and Health Care 382
Lay Theories of Illness 383
Health Care and Resources Across Cultures 384
Health Communication 384
Patient-Provider Communication 387
Intercultural Communication and Educational Settings 390
Learning Styles Across Cultures 391
Teacher Immediacy in the Classroom and Across Cultures 394
Recommendations for the Intercultural Classroom 397
Chapter Summary 398
Discussion Questions 398
Ethical Considerations 399
Developing Intercultural Communication Competence 399
Key Terms 400
Chapter 12 Acculturation, Culture Shock, and Intercultural Competence 402
Acculturation 403
Acculturative Stress 405
A Model of Acculturation 406
Modes of Acculturation 409
Acculturation in the United States 411
Culture Shock 413
W-Curve Models of Reentry Culture Shock 417
Strategies for Managing Culture Shock 417
Indicators of Success in the Intercultural Context 421
Intercultural Communication Competence 422
A Model of Intercultural Competence 423
The Knowledge Component 423
The Affective Component 425
The Psychomotor Component 426
Situational Features 427
Chapter Summary 429
Discussion Questions 429
Ethical Considerations: Some Final Thoughts on Developing Intercultural Competence 430
Key Terms 431
Glossary 432
Notes 438
Index 474
