Geochemistry of Marine Sediments available in Hardcover, eBook
- ISBN-10:
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- ISBN-13:
- 9780691095066
- Pub. Date:
- 09/10/2006
- Publisher:
- Princeton University Press
- ISBN-10:
- 069109506X
- ISBN-13:
- 9780691095066
- Pub. Date:
- 09/10/2006
- Publisher:
- Princeton University Press
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Overview
No other book presents such an in-depth look at marine sediment geochemistry. Including the most up-to-date research, a complete survey of the subject, explanatory text, and the most recent mathematical formulations that have contributed to our greater understanding of early diagenesis, Geochemistry of Marine Sediments will interest graduate students of geology, geochemistry, and oceanography, as well as the broader community of earth scientists. It is poised to become the standard text on the subject for years to come.
Product Details
| ISBN-13: | 9780691095066 |
|---|---|
| Publisher: | Princeton University Press |
| Publication date: | 09/10/2006 |
| Edition description: | New Edition |
| Pages: | 624 |
| Product dimensions: | 6.00(w) x 9.25(h) x (d) |
About the Author
Read an Excerpt
Geochemistry of Marine Sediments
By David J. Burdige
Princeton University Press
Copyright © 2006 Princeton University PressAll right reserved.
ISBN: 0-691-09506-X
Chapter One
INTRODUCTION
The processes occurring in the upper several meters of marine sediments have a profound effect on the local and global cycling of many elements. For example, the balance between carbon preservation and remineralization represents the key link between carbon cycling in active surface reservoirs in the oceans, in the atmosphere, and on land, and carbon that cycles on much longer, geological time scales-in sedimentary rock, and in coal and petroleum deposits (Berner, 1989; Hedges, 1992). Denitrification in marine sediments, i.e., the reduction of nitrate to gaseous [N.sub.2], is an important component of the global nitrogen cycle, and on glacial-interglacial time scales may play a role in regulating the oceanic inventory of reactive nitrogen (Ganeshram et al., 1995; Codispoti et al., 2001). On more local scales, nitrogen and phosphorus remineralization in coastal and estuarine sediments can provide a significant fraction of the nutrients required by primary producers in the water column (Klump and Martens, 1983; Kemp and Boynton, 1984). In deep-sea sediments, trace metal remineralization may play a role in the growth and genesis of manganese nodules (Glasby, 2000). Similarly, in coastal and estuarine sediments subjectedto elevated anthropogenic inputs of certain toxic metals, sediment processes affect the extent to which these sediments represent "permanent" versus "temporary" sinks for these metals (e.g., Huerta-Diaz and Morse, 1992; Riedel et al., 1997).
Understanding processes occurring in surficial marine sediment is also important in the accurate interpretation of paleoceanographic sediment records, since sediment processes can sometimes significantly alter the primary "depositional" signal recorded in the sediments (e.g., Martin and Sayles, 2003). At the same time, temporal changes in ocean conditions can lead to the occurrence of nonsteady-state conditions in sediments (Wilson et al., 1985; Finney et al., 1988). The ability to recognize and accurately quantify nonsteady-state processes in sediments may therefore provide important paleoceanographic information that is complementary to that obtained using more traditional tracer approaches such as carbon or oxygen isotopes.
The geochemistry of marine sediments is controlled by both the composition of the material initially deposited in the sediments and the chemical, biological, or physical processes that affect this material after its deposition. These processes fall within the general category of what is commonly referred to as early diagenesis (sensu Berner, 1980). Since these processes occur in the upper portions of the sediments, temperatures are generally not elevated above bottom water values. Sediment pore spaces are also still water saturated, although in some sediments gas bubbles may also occur (e.g., see section 12.6).
More importantly, though, a key fact that has emerged in the past 20-30 years of research in marine sediment geochemistry is that the oxidation, or remineralization, of organic matter deposited in sediments is either the direct or the indirect causative agent for many early diagenetic changes. Thus in many ways, we are actually examining the biogeochemistry of these sediments. Much of this organic matter remineralization is mediated by bacteria, since marine sediments often become anoxic (i.e., devoid of oxygen) close to the sediment-water interface (generally <1 cm in coastal sediments to several centimeters or more in some deep-sea sediments). At the same time, surficial marine sediments are often colonized by benthic macrofauna such as burrowing clams and shrimp and tube-dwelling polychaetes. The presence of these benthic macrofauna and their resulting activities can also have a profound effect on sediment geochemistry (e.g., Aller, 1982b).
Given the key role that organic matter remineralization plays in many early diagenetic processes, significant efforts have gone into understanding and quantifying these processes. Such studies have taken both organic and inorganic approaches, with the latter often carried out through studies of the pore-water chemistry of remineralization products or reactants. Studies of pore-water geochemistry are particularly useful in this effort because they are very sensitive indicators of diagenetic changes occurring in the sediments. As an example of this, Berner (1980) notes that a 20% increase of dissolved calcium in the pore waters from the dissolution of calcium carbonate is roughly equivalent to a decrease of only 0.02% CaC[O.sub.3] by weight. While the former is easily measurable, the latter is not. Thus, a great deal of effort has gone into the study of pore-water geochemistry and the development of diagenetic models of the processes affecting pore water solutes.
Historically, there has been more of a tendency to use inorganic geochemical studies to quantify rates of sediment carbon remineralization processes. However, an increasing number of workers have also begun to use organic geochemical measurements to examine the rates of these processes. Such efforts have built important links between inorganic and organic geochemical approaches to the study of sediment biogeochemistry. They have also played a major role in advancing not only what we know about sediment geochemical processes, but also how we approach their study.
The remainder of this book is divided up as follows. Chapters 2-6 contain a basic introduction to the study of marine sediment geochemistry. These chapters also begin to discus the ways we can quantify processes occurring in sediments using mathematical models of early diagenesis. Chapters 7-12 further examine sediment organic matter remineralization and early diagenetic processes from the standpoint of: the potential reactions that may occur; the relationships between these reactions, e.g., thermodynamic vs. kinetic controls; the composition and reactivity of sediment organic matter; and the role that external factors play in controlling these reactions, e.g., carbon rain rate to the sediments or bioturbation.
Chapters 13-17 build on these previous chapters in more specific discussions examining processes occurring in pelagic and continental margin sediments. The division of the material presented here is perhaps somewhat arbitrary since changes in sediment geochemical processes are clearly a continuum as one moves from deep-sea to nearshore settings (e.g., see discussions in section 7.5.2). Nevertheless, I believe that this approach is as good as any other to present this material.
Chapter 13 describes processes occurring in pelagic sediments; this discussion then leads to a discussion in chapter 14 of nonsteadystate, or time-dependent, diagenetic processes occurring in sediments. By presenting a discussion of nonsteady-state processes in a separate chapter the intent is not to suggest that the occurrence of nonsteady-state conditions is "unusual," or the exception, as compared to steady-state conditions. In fact, evidence increasingly suggests that the opposite is the case, and that true steady-state conditions may be far less common in marine sediments than has been previously assumed.
Chapter 15 builds on much of what has been discussed in earlier chapters by examining the controls on organic carbon preservation in marine sediments, a process that occurs largely in continental margin sediments. Chapters 16 and 17 further examine processes occurring in continental margin, coastal, and estuarine sediments from the standpoint of the sediment cycling of trace metals and nutrients. The book concludes by examining sediment biogeochemical processes in the context of the global cycles of the major elements.
An appendix at the end of the book briefly describes many of the field sites discussed in the text.
In writing this book I have assumed that the reader has some basic knowledge of geology, chemistry, and biology. Readers who come across unfamiliar terms or concepts may want to consult introductory texts in these fields. In contrast, many readers may not be as familiar with some of the concepts of chemical oceanography that are brought into the discussions here. Several good texts have been published in this area that readers may find useful (Broecker and Peng, 1982; Libes, 1992; Millero, 1996; Pilson, 1998; Chester, 2000; Gianguzza et al., 2002). Where appropriate I cite these works in the text.
(Continues...)
Excerpted from Geochemistry of Marine Sediments by David J. Burdige Copyright © 2006 by Princeton University Press . Excerpted by permission.
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Table of Contents
Preface xv
Common Abbreviations and Symbols xvii
CHAPTER ONE: Introduction 1
CHAPTER TWO: The Components of Marine Sediments 5
2.1 Detrital Components 5
2.2 Biogenic Components 8
2.2.1 Biogenic Carbonates 9
2.2.2 Biogenic Silica 10
2.2.3 Distribution of Biogenic Components in Marine Sediments 10
2.3 Authigenic Minerals 12
2.3.1 Nonbiogenic Carbonates 13
2.3.2 Mn Crusts, Layers, and Nodules 13
2.3.3 Phosphorites 14
2.3.4 Sulfides 15
2.4 Clays and Clay Minerals 15
2.4.1 Distribution of Clay Minerals in Surface Marine Sediments 18
2.4.2 Ion Exchange/Adsorption 20
2.5 The Classification of Marine Sediments and Sedimentary Regimes 24
CHAPTER THREE: Isotope Geochemistry 27
3.1 Introduction 27
3.2 Principles of Isotope Fractionation 28
3.2.1 Terminology 30
3.2.2 Equilibrium Isotope Exchange Reactions 31
3.3 Isotope Fractionation in Inorganic Materials in Nature 32
3.3.1 Isotope Fractionation in the Hydrosphere and in Ice Cores 32
3.3.2 Isotope Fractionation during Clay Mineral Formation 34
3.3.3 Oxygen and Carbon Isotopes in Calcite 35
3.4 Carbon Isotopes in Organic Matter 36
3.4.1 Photosynthesis 37
3.4.2 Respiration (Early Diagenesis in Sediments) 38
3.5 Oxygen and Carbon Isotopes in Sediment Pore-Waters 38
3.5.1 Carbon Isotopes 38
3.5.2 Oxygen Isotopes 39
3.6 Nitrogen Isotopes 39
3.7 Sulfur Isotopes 40
3.8 Radioactive Isotopes 40
3.8.1 Basic Principles 40
3.8.2 Radiocarbon 43
CHAPTER FOUR: Physical Properties of Sediments 46
4.1 Grain Size 46
4.2 Porosity and Sediment Density 47
4.3 Permeability 55
CHAPTER FIVE: An Introduction to Transport Processes in Sediments 59
5.1 Diffusion 59
5.2 Sediment Accumulation, Steady State,and the Frame of Reference for Processes in Marine Sediments 61
5.3 An Introduction to Bioturbation and Bioirrigation 65
5.4 Time and Space Scales of Sediment Processes 67
5.5 The Classification of Marine Sediments on the Basis of Their Functional Diagenetic Characteristics 70
CHAPTER SIX: Models of Sediment Diagenesis 72
6.1 The General Diagenetic Equation 72
6.1.1 Diffusion 74
6.1.2 Advection, Sediment Compaction, and Bioturbation 78
6.1.3 Adsorption 83
6.2 Solutions to the Diagenetic Equation 84
6.2.1 Boundary Conditions 86
6.3 Solutions to Specific Diagenetic Equations 87
6.3.1 Organic Matter Remineralization without Bioturbation 88
6.3.2 Organic Matter Remineralization with Bioturbation 89
6.3.3 Organic Matter Remineralization Coupled to Sulfate Reduction 91
6.3.4 Ammonium Production in Anoxic Sediments 92
6.3.5 Determination of Sediment Accumulation Rates 95
CHAPTER SEVEN
Biogeochemical Processes in Sediments 97
7.1 Bacterial Metabolism: General Considerations 98
7.2 Bacterial Respiration and Biogeochemical Zonation in Sediments 99
7.3 Bacterial Respiration: Specific Processes 105
7.3.1 Aerobic Respiration 105
7.3.2 Denitrification 105
7.3.3 Manganese and Iron Reduction 107
7.3.4 Sulfate Reduction 110
7.3.5 Methanogenesis 111
7.4 Chemolithotrophic Reactions 114
7.4.1 Aerobic Processes 114
7.4.2 Anaerobic Processes 116
7.4.3 Linkages between Chemolithotrophic and Organic Matter Remineralization Processes 116
7.5 The Distribution of Organic Matter Remineralization Processes in Marine Sediments 120
7.5.1 Depth Scales of Biogeochemical Zonation 120
7.5.2 General Trends with Water Column Depth or Sediment Type 124
7.6 Dynamics of Organic Matter Decomposition in Sediments 134
7.6.1 General Considerations 134
7.6.2 Anaerobic "Foodchains" 135
7.6.3 Dynamics of Organic Matter Decomposition under Mixed Redox Conditions 139
CHAPTER EIGHT: Quantifying Carbon and Nutrient Remineralization in Sediments 142
8.1 Models of Organic Matter Decomposition in Sediments 142
8.2 Sediment Budgets for Reactive Components 150
8.2.1 Theoretical Considerations 151
8.2.2 Sediment Nutrient Budgets Using Cape Lookout Bight as an Example 153
8.3 Carbon Burial in Sediments 161
8.4 Layered and Coupled Models of Sediment Diagenesis 162
CHAPTER NINE: An Introduction to the Organic Geochemistry of Marine Sediments 171
9.1 General Considerations 172
9.2 Concentrations and Sources of Organic Matter in Marine Sediments 174
9.3 The Bulk Chemical Composition of Marine Sediment Organic Matter 175
9.4 Amino Acids 179
9.5 Carbohydrates 189
9.6 Lignins 193
9.7 Lipids 194
9.8 Humic Substances and Molecularly Uncharacterized Organic Matter 204
9.8.1 Black Carbon 206
9.8.2 Molecularly Uncharacterized Organic Matter (MU-OM): General Considerations 207
9.8.3 Geopolymerization: The Formation of Humic Substances 209
9.8.4 Selective Preservation of Refractory Biomacromolecules 212
9.8.5 Physical Protection 213
9.9 Organic Nitrogen Diagenesis in Sediments 215
CHAPTER TEN: Dissolved Organic Matter in Marine Sediments 218
10.1 General Observations 218
10.2 Diagenetic Models of Pore-Water DOM Cycling in Sediments 227
10.3 Pore-Water DOM Compositional Data 228
10.3.1 Short-Chain Organic Acids 230
10.3.2 Carbohydrates 231
10.3.3 Amino Acids 231
10.4 Fluxes of DOM from Marine Sediments 232
10.5 DOM Adsorption and Sediment-Organic Matter Interactions 234
CHAPTER ELEVEN: Linking Sediment Organic Geochemistry and Sediment Diagenesis 237
11.1 The Sources of Organic Matter to Marine Sediments 237
11.1.1 Carbon and Nitrogen Isotopic Tracers of Organic Matter Sources 238
11.1.2 Elemental Ratios as Tracers of Organic Matter Sources 241
11.1.3 Spatial Trends in the Sources of Organic Matter to Marine Sediments:Marine versus Terrestrial 244
11.1.4 Other Sources of Organic Matter to Marine Sediments: Black Carbon and Recycled Kerogen 249
11.1.5 Production of Bacterial Biomass in Sediments 250
11.2 The Composition of Organic Matter Undergoing Remineralization in Marine Sediments 253
11.2.1 Pore-Water Stoichiometric Models for Nutrient Regeneration/Organic Mater Remineralization 254
11.2.2 Benthic Flux and Sediment POM Stoichiometric Models for Nutrient Regeneration 260
11.2.3 The Composition of Organic Matter Undergoing Remineralization: Elemental Ratios and Stable Isotopic Composition 261
11.2.4 The Composition of Organic Matter Undergoing Remineralization: Organic Geochemical Composition 265
CHAPTER TWELVE: Processes at the Sediment-Water Interface 271
12.1 The Determination of Benthic Fluxes 272
12.2 Diffusive Transportand the Benthic Boundary Layer 274
12.3 Sediment-Water Exchange Processes in Permeable Sediments 283
12.4 Bioturbation 286
12.4.1 General Considerations 286
12.4.2 Models of Bioturbation 289
12.4.3 Nonlocal Sediment Mixing 299
12.5 Bioirrigation 302
12.5.1 The Diffusive Openness of Bioirrigated Sediments 313
12.5.2 Methods for Quantifying Bioirrigation in Sediments 316
12.5.3 Rates of Bioirrigation in Marine Sediments 319
12.6 Other Sediment-Water Interface Processes: Methane Gas Ebullition 326
CHAPTER THIRTEEN: Biogeochemical Processes in Pelagic (Deep-Sea) Sediments 328
13.1 Organic Matter Remineralization 328
13.2 Trace Metal Diagenesis 332
13.3 Manganese Nodules and Crusts 344
13.4 Diagenesis of Opaline Silica 352
13.5 Diagenesis of Calcium Carbonate 359
CHAPTER FOURTEEN: Nonsteady-State Processes in Marine Sediments 373
14.1 General Considerations 373
14.2 Periodic Input Processes 374
14.3 Seasonality in Sediment Processes 378
14.4 Diagenetic Processes in Deep-Sea Turbidites 382
14.4.1 Organic Geochemical Studies of Turbidite Diagenesis 391
14.5 Multiple Mn Peaks in Sediments: Nonsteady-State Diagenetic Processes Associated with Paleoceanographic Changes 395
14.5.1 Multiple Mn Peaks and the Glacial-Holocene Transition 400
14.5.2 Multiple Mn Peaks and Pleistocene Climate Cycles 402
14.5.3 Multiple Mn Peaks in Holocene Sediments 404
CHAPTER FIFTEEN: The Controls on Organic Carbon Preservation in Marine Sediments 408
15.1 Organic Matter-Mineral Interactions 412
15.2 The Role of Oxygen in Sediment Carbon Remineralization and Preservation 417
15.3 The Role of Benthic Macrofaunal Processes in Sediment Carbon Remineralization and Preservation 419
15.4 Oxygen Exposure Time as a Determinant of Organic Carbon Preservation in Sediments 421
15.4.1 What Exactly Does Sediment Oxygen Exposure "Mean"? 425
15.4.2 Organic Carbon Burial and Controls on Atmospheric O2 428
15.5 The Composition of Organic Matter Preserved in Marine Sediments and the Fate of Terrestrial Organic Matter in Marine Sediments 432
15.6 The Relationship between Physical Protection, Oxygen Exposure,and Possible Abiotic Condensation Reactions in Sediment Carbon Preservation 439
CHAPTER SIXTEEN: Biogeochemical Processes in Continental Margin Sediments. I. The CO2 System and Nitrogen and Phosphorus Cycling 442
16.1 Pore-Water pH and Carbonate Chemistry under Suboxic and Anoxic Conditions 442
16.2 Sediment Nitrogen Cycling 452
16.2.1 Benthic DON Fluxes 463
16.3 Sediment Phosphorus Cycling 464
16.3.1 Formation of Authigenic CFA and Phosphorus Burial in Sediments 474
CHAPTER SEVENTEEN: Biogeochemical Processes in Continental Margin Sediments. II. Sulfur, Methane, and Trace Metal Cycling 478
17.1 Sediment Sulfur Cycling 478
17.1.1 Sulfur Burial Efficiency 486
17.1.2 Long-Term Changes in the Sedimentary Sulfur Cycle 489
17.2 Methanogenesis and Anaerobic Methane Oxidation 490
17.2.1 Shallow (Coastal) Sediments 490
17.2.2 Continental Margin Sediments 493
17.3 Trace Metal Cycling 500
CHAPTER EIGHTEEN: Linking Sediment Processes to Global Elemental Cycles: Authigenic Clay Mineral Formation and Reverse Weathering 509
18.1 Sediment Silica Budgets 514
18.2 Final Thoughts 515
Appendix
Some of the Field Sites Discussed in the Text 517
References 521
Index 593
What People are Saying About This
This is undoubtedly a major contribution to the field. David Burdige's scholarship is cutting edge.
— Bernard P. Boudreau, Dalhousie University
David Burdige's book reviews and develops the ideas that emerged in the field of geochemistry over the last twenty-five years. It is a significant contribution. The scholarship is clearly sound, with excellent and comprehensive references to the latest work. I have no doubt it will be useful to any students who wish to learn the subject.
— Michael Krom, Leeds University Earth and Biosphere Institute
This book fills a gaping hole in our field. While certain to be used by specialists, it also provides background and ancillary information so as to reach allied fields. Burdige has done a remarkable job in providing the right balance of background theory, real-world implementation, and examples from the literature.
— Rick Murray, Boston University
"This is undoubtedly a major contribution to the field. David Burdige's scholarship is cutting edge."—Bernard P. Boudreau, Dalhousie University"Burdige has written a wonderfully exhaustive review spanning all aspects of marine sedimentary geochemistry. Generous background welcomes the newcomer, while ample depth and breadth stimulate the savvy expert. The discussions are built from the latest work in biogeochemistry and microbial ecology. And in the tradition of Robert Berner's classic treatment of early diagenesis, Burdige handles reaction pathways and transport processes rigorously and quantitatively. This nicely written, well-illustrated survey suits both the reference shelf and the classroom."—Timothy W. Lyons, University of California, Riverside"This book fills a gaping hole in our field. While certain to be used by specialists, it also provides background and ancillary information so as to reach allied fields. Burdige has done a remarkable job in providing the right balance of background theory, real-world implementation, and examples from the literature."—Rick Murray, Boston University"David Burdige's book reviews and develops the ideas that emerged in the field of geochemistry over the last twenty-five years. It is a significant contribution. The scholarship is clearly sound, with excellent and comprehensive references to the latest work. I have no doubt it will be useful to any students who wish to learn the subject."—Michael Krom, Leeds University Earth and Biosphere Institute
Burdige has written a wonderfully exhaustive review spanning all aspects of marine sedimentary geochemistry. Generous background welcomes the newcomer, while ample depth and breadth stimulate the savvy expert. The discussions are built from the latest work in biogeochemistry and microbial ecology. And in the tradition of Robert Berner's classic treatment of early diagenesis, Burdige handles reaction pathways and transport processes rigorously and quantitatively. This nicely written, well-illustrated survey suits both the reference shelf and the classroom.
— Timothy W. Lyons, University of California, Riverside