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| ISBN-13: | 9780486170367 |
|---|---|
| Publisher: | Dover Publications |
| Publication date: | 11/07/2012 |
| Sold by: | Barnes & Noble |
| Format: | eBook |
| Pages: | 128 |
| File size: | 16 MB |
| Note: | This product may take a few minutes to download. |
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Tibetan Religious Art
By Antoinette K. Gordon
Dover Publications, Inc.
Copyright © 2002 Dover Publications, Inc.All rights reserved.
ISBN: 978-0-486-17036-7
CHAPTER 1
BUDDHISM AND LAMAISM
THE RELIGION of Tibet is known to us as "Lamaism." Lamaism is one of the later developments of Buddhism, and Prince Gautama Siddhartha is generally recognized as its founder. He was a historical person, a prince of India, born about 620 B.C. in Kapilavastu, the capital of a small principality in Nepal, northern India. It was prophesied shortly after his birth that he would eventually renounce his family and throne and become a "savior of mankind." This he did, leaving his home and family at the age of twenty-nine to become a religious ascetic, hoping by doing so to solve the meaning of life.
After six years of discipline and association with the famous ascetics and anchorites of his day, he decided that their extreme austerities were not the solution, but that the "Middle Way" was the right path to follow. This meant neither self-mortification nor self-indulgence. After a long period of profound contemplation Gautama came to a realization of the "Truth," the causes underlying the sufferings of humanity. Thus, he became the Buddha (which means Awakened, or Enlightened One) and formulated his doctrine of the Four Noble Truths: life is suffering; the cause of suffering is desire; desire must be overcome; then there will be no more suffering or rebirth. Desire can be overcome by following a code of conduct which he outlined in his First Sermon in the Deer Park near Benares. This code he called "The Noble Eightfold Path," namely: (1)right views — freedom from delusion; (2) right aims — high and worthy thoughts; (3) right speech — truthfulness; (4) right actions; (5) right effort — self control; (6) right mindedness — an active mind; (7) right means of livelihood; (8) right rapture — meditation on the realities of life.
The five commandments which the Buddha laid down for the layman were that he abstain: from taking life; from drinking intoxicants; from lying; from stealing; and from unchastity. For the monks who took the vows of celibacy and lived in communities called "viharas" the rules and discipline were much more severe. The worship of gods and deities did not enter into primitive Buddhism, which was primarily a code of ethics and conduct.
Buddha preached for forty-five years, and after his death his disciples traveled from place to place spreading his doctrines and collecting his teachings, which up to the time of his death were transmitted orally. Gradually Gautama became deified. Some of the scriptures were reduced to writing about three hundred years after Buddha's death. The earliest date of the writings was in the reign of King Ashoka — 250 B.C. in Pali and some other Middle Indian Prakrit dialects. They were not complete. In North India, in the second half of the first century A.D. there were further collections by King Kanishka. The sacred books are known in Sanskrit as the Tripitaka (Three Baskets).
Later these books were translated into Tibetan. They are known as the Kanjur, that is, "The Translated Commandments," and the Tanjur, "The Translated Explanations." The Kanjur consists of 108 volumes. It is the bible of the Tibetan Buddhists, based on the Tripitaka, with Tantric additions. The Tanjur comprises 225 volumes, of treatises on grammar, poetry, logic, rhetoric, law, medicine, astrology, divination, chemistry, painting, and biographies of saints.
Buddhism began to spread beyond India. First it reached China, then Korea, then Japan. In the seventh century it reached Tibet. By this time, however, Buddhism had split into two main schools, known as Hinayana and Mahayana Buddhism. One of the fundamental differences between these two was that the Hinayana school adhered more closely to primitive Buddhism (the original teachings of Gautama), whereas the Mahayana school brought in the worship of deities and elaborate ritual. Primitive Buddhism was essentially an intellectual religion in which one had to work out his own salvation through meditation and the suppression of desires in the sense of nonattachment to worldly or material things, whereas Mahayana Buddhism became an emotional religion wherein bhakti, devotion or faith, was the principal requisite and one had only to call upon the "name of Buddha" in order to be saved. Mahayana Buddhism also developed a group of Bodhisattvas, or potential Buddhas, who became the intercessors upon whom the people called for help in order to attain salvation.
The native religion of Tibet, called Pön, was a form of demonolatry and nature worship. It was a primitive Shamanist faith, in which the wizard priest, or shaman, was the principal figure. In the shaman's hands lay the fate of all the people. He was priest and doctor, and was respected and feared by everyone. He employed all manner of magic charms and incantations, and the evil spirits were propitiated and subjected to his power.
Until the eighth century Buddhism made little progress in Tibet. Then Padmasambhava, a famous teacher from the great Buddhist University at Nalanda, India, was invited to come to Tibet. He accepted some of the Pön deities into the Buddhist Pantheon, thereby conciliating the native priests. This fusion of the native religion with Mahayana Buddhism became the religion of Tibet. By occidentals it is called Lamaism, the name deriving from bla-ma, Tibetan for monk, or superior one; but the Tibetans simply call their religion "The Religion" or "Buddha's Religion."
In the course of time Lamaism was divided into several sects, the three main sects at the present day being the orthodox Ning-ma-pa (known familiarly as the Red Cap Sect), the Kar-gyu-pa (the White Sect), and the Ge-lug-pa (the Yellow Cap Sect). The Red Cap Sect was founded by Padmasambhava in the eighth century. It contains more of the Pönist ideas and superstitions than do the later reformed sects. The White Sect, the Kar-gyu-pa, was founded in 975 by Tilopa. His teachings were transmitted to Naropa, who in turn was the teacher of Marpa. Marpa's chief disciple was Mila-repa, most loved of the Tibetan saints. The Yellow Cap Sect, known as the Ge-lug-pa, or Virtuous Ones, was founded by Tsongkha-pa in the fifteenth century. Tsong-kha-pa made many reforms in discipline and enforced the monastic rules, which had become very lax. Today this Yellow Cap Sect is the dominant sect in Tibet.
The Dalai Lama is the "Priest-King" of Tibet, while the Tashi Lama is the spiritual leader. Abbots of important monasteries are often called "Living Buddhas" by occidentals, because the Tibetans consider them continuous incarnations of certain Buddhas and Bodhisattvas (potential Buddhas). For example, every Dalai Lama is regarded as the incarnation of the Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara (Tibetan, sPyan-ras-gzigs; pronounced Chen-re-zi), The Compassionate One, who is the patron saint of the Yellow Cap Sect.
The succession of the Dalai Lama and that of the Tashi Lama is not hereditary, but is determined by special conditions and by the oracles. When a Dalai Lama "retires to the Heavenly Fields," the lama-astrologers consult the oracle at Nachung, where the official government astrologer also resides, for information concerning the locality in which the new incarnation may be found. Often the Dalai Lama himself, before dying, gives some indication of the locality.
All the male children who were born at the time of the Dalai Lama's death and who possess certain physical characteristics that are believed to indicate a reincarnation are examined, and circumstances at the time of their birth are investigated. The potential applicant is confronted with various personal belongings, among which are articles which belonged to the late Dalai Lama. If he selects and recognizes those which belonged to him, that is another auspicious sign. When the identity of the newly incarnated Dalai Lama is finally determined, the child is brought to Lhasa in state. He lives in the palace under the tutelage of the Regent until he becomes of age, when he assumes full control.
The Tashi Lama is also a "Living Buddha." He is the spiritual head of Tibet and is regarded as an incarnation of Amitabha, the Buddha of Infinite Light, who is the source of wisdom and the creator of this world cycle. The Tashi Lama has no temporal powers; his domain and authority are entirely in the spiritual realm. The photograph on page 8 shows the late Tashi Lama, Pan chen blo bzang tub bstan chos kyi nyi mahi. He was an exile in China for many years because he differed with the Dalai Lama on religious issues. He died in 1937, on his way back to Tibet. At this writing, the new Tashi Lama is thirteen years old. He resides at Kumbum Lamasery, on the northwestern Chinese-Tibetan border.
"The Religion" is the dominant factor in the lives of all the Tibetan people. There is a saying in Tibet that "without a lama there is no way to God." The lamas are consulted on every occasion, and no undertaking, however small, is entered into without their advice. They also hold many of the important civil positions. In almost every family at least one person enters a monastery. About 30 percent of the Tibetans are connected with the monasteries in some way, either as monks or in the lay service.
The importance of the lamas' influence in the daily lives of the people cannot be overestimated. They desire isolation for the purpose of living their religion, and in accordance with the tenets of their religion they do not wish to take life. In consequence they are totally unprepared for the political crises now at hand. It will take a long time to determine the ultimate result of the conflict between their religion and politics.
Tibet has captured the interest and imagination of the West. If anything can be done to help her in her present struggle for freedom of religion and her way of life, it can only be accomplished by understanding her "way of life" and her religion.
CHAPTER 2THE PANTHEON OF DEITIES AND DIVINITIES
ART in Tibet is an expression of "The Religion". The deities of the pantheon are numerous and are depicted in special ways. Their appearance and attributes and colors differ according to their functions. For this reason it is important to know the various classifications of the pantheon itself. Buddhism took many Hindu deities into its fold, and wherever the religion spread it absorbed many of the indigenous gods and demons. The orthodox, or Red Cap sect not only has many of the Pönist gods in its pantheon but also makes much use of charms and spells and other forms of magic which were not permitted by the reformed sects. The classification of the principal deities, however, is basically the same in all sects. The sects differ somewhat in the ritual and in the Buddhas they worship as supreme. In the Tibetan religious books, the Tanjur, or Commentaries, are to be found descriptions of the various deities and how they are to be depicted in painting and sculpture. Everything must be done according to these rules.
In the past most of the ritual objects were made in the monasteries by the monks and their acolytes. Occasionally a painting will have the imprint of the hand of a high lama on the back, and at times also an invocation or the Buddhist creed. The images and ritual objects have a hollow space in which prayers and invocations are inserted at the consecration, after which the opening is sealed. This makes them "sacred images."
Many images which have come out of Tibet have been opened, and the prayers have been removed. Although this detracts from their "religious significance," as objects of study from the aesthetic or iconographical standpoints, they have their value.
A general classification of the deities of the pantheon is as follows.
The Supreme or Adi (first) Buddha is the Author of the Universe.
The Buddhas, who are the spiritual sons of the Adi-Buddha, are classified according to their particular functions. The Five Dhyani Buddhas are the creative Buddhas. The Manushi Buddhas. are mortal or earthly Buddhas. Some of these lived before the historical Gautama. Gautama was a manushi (earthly) Buddha in his last incarnation. The Medicine Buddhas. are the healing Buddhas. The Confession Buddhas. are those invoked in the confession of sins. Lastly, Maitreya is The Future Buddha, who waits in the Tusita heaven. This Buddha will appear on earth when the time comes to renew the faith.
The Bodhisattvas, are the potential Buddhas. There are several groups of them. The main group is the "five Dhyani Bodhisattvas," who are the spiritual sons of the five Dhyani Buddhas. Another group consists of eight Bodhisattvas. A still larger group of independent Bodhisattvas includes both male and female divinities, including the Taras (the Savioresses); the Pancharaksha (Spell Goddesses, who protect from diseases); Sarasvati (Goddess of Music and Poetry); Marichi (Goddess of the Dawn); and many others. Each Bodhisattva has a particular function and symbology.
The Yi-dam are tutelary deities. In Tibet each person chooses a tutelary as his special protector for life or for a particular undertaking. Classed among the Yi-dam is a particular group, the Dhyani Buddhas, with their consorts. The consort (Sanskrit, shakti) symbolizes the female energy of the deity.
The Dharmapala are defenders of the law, the protectors of Buddhism. They are usually shown in fierce manifestation, since among their functions is the subjection of the enemies of the Faith and of evildoers.
There are a host of lesser divinities: the Lokapala are the guardians of the four cardinal points of the Buddhist universe; tbe Dakinis (sky-goers, or fairies) are invoked to grant superhuman powers. Then there are Goddesses of the Bardo (the period between death and rebirth), some of whom are animal or bird-headed. They appear to the deceased in visions in the after-death state. The eighty-four Great Magicians who were teachers and writers of the Tantric treatises also were deified. There are Wealth Gods, invoked and propitiated for the granting of riches; Mountain Gods, guardians of the wealth stored in the mountains; the Five Kings, who are the astrologers and protectors of the monasteries; and a host of demons, witches, fairies, heavenly musicians, serpent gods, golden birds and household, personal, and local gods, who differ in various localities.
Many of the great historical teachers, both Indian and Tibetan, were deified and taken into the pantheon. Among these are Padmasambhava, the founder of Lamaism, Atisha, Marpa, Mila-repa, and Tsong-kha-pa, founders of the later reformed sects. The group of sixteen original disciples of Buddha and two religious supporters, usually spoken of as the eighteen Arhants (Deserving Ones), were also deified and worshiped.
Many of the forms of the deities are peaceful and beautiful, while others appear angry and threatening, depending on the particular purposes for which they are invoked. There are forms called "Tantric" which have more than the usual number of heads and arms and legs. These deities may have had their origin in the primitive idea that a deity capable of doing good with two arms could multiply his powers by having four or eight or a thousand arms. The distinguished scholar the late Ananda K. Coomaraswamy, in The Dance of Siva, p. 70, said: "To reflect such conceptions in art demands a synthetic rather than a representative language. It might well be claimed, then, that this method adopted sometimes in India, sometimes in Egypt, sometimes in Greece, and still employed, has proved successful from the practical point of view, of pure expression, the getting said what had to be said: and this is after all the sure and safe foundation of art.
"These forms remain potentially equally satisfactory, too, whether as philosophers we regard them as purely abstract expressions, or, with the artists themselves regard them as realistic presentations of another order of life than our own, deriving from a deva-loka, other than the world we are familiar with, but not necessarily unknowable or always invisible."
According to the legend in Avalokiteshvara's last incarnation as a Bodhisattva on earth, he became enlightened and ready to become a Buddha and enter Nirvana. On his way there he heard weeping and wailing. Turning about, he looked down upon the earth and saw humanity bewailing the fact that he who had helped them with his infinite compassion was about to leave them and enter Nirvana. Agonized by all this, he mourned so that his head split into pieces. The Dhyani Buddha Amitabha, his spiritual father, put the pieces together into eleven heads and gave him a thousand arms. Avalokiteshvara vowed to remain a Bodhisattva to help suffering humanity and pledged that he would not enter Nirvana until all sentient beings were saved. Avalokiteshvara is incarnate in each Dalai Lama.
If some of the images or ritual objects seem fantastic or terrifying, it must be remembered that everything has a special meaning and a complex symbolism, which in many instances goes so far back into antiquity that it is impossible to trace its origin. Every pose of the hands, every object carried, even the color and type of garment and ornament has a special significance. A ferocious aspect does not necessarily imply an evil deity; it is an aspect which a deity may assume for the purpose of terrifying evil spirits or evildoers. An example is the ferocious Yamantaka, who is but the fierce aspect of Manjushri, the God of Learning, to whom the people of Tibet appealed when Yama, the God of Death, was ravishing the country. He assumed this fierce form and conquered Yama, limiting his powers, but making him Judge of the Dead and one of the Defenders of Buddhism. These forms in general denote superhuman powers, and it is considered especially efficacious to worship them.
(Continues...)
Excerpted from Tibetan Religious Art by Antoinette K. Gordon. Copyright © 2002 Dover Publications, Inc.. Excerpted by permission of Dover Publications, Inc..
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Table of Contents
BUDDHISM AND LAMAISMTHE PANTHEON OF DEITIES AND DIVINITIES
TEMPLE PAINTINGS (THANG-KAS)
IMAGES
BOOKS AND WOOD BLOCKS
VOTIVE TABLETS
RITURAL OBJECTS
ROBES AND MASKS
"METAL WORK, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS, AND JEWELRY"
BUTTER SCULPTURE AND SAND MANDALAS
CALLIGRAPHY
CONCLUSION
BIBLIOGRAPHY
INDEX