The Vaccine Race: Science, Politics, and the Human Costs of Defeating Disease

by Meredith Wadman

Overview

"A real jewel of science history...brims with suspense and now-forgotten catastrophe and intrigue...Wadman’s smooth prose calmly spins a surpassingly complicated story into a real tour de force."—The New York Times

“Riveting . . . [The Vaccine Race] invites comparison with Rebecca Skloot's 2007 The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks.”—Nature 

The epic and controversial story of a major breakthrough in cell biology that led to the conquest of rubella and other devastating diseases.
 
Until the late 1960s, tens of thousands of American children suffered crippling birth defects if their mothers had been exposed to rubella, popularly known as German measles, while pregnant; there was no vaccine and little understanding of how the disease devastated fetuses. In June 1962, a young biologist in Philadelphia, using tissue extracted from an aborted fetus from Sweden, produced safe, clean cells that allowed the creation of vaccines against rubella and other common childhood diseases. Two years later, in the midst of a devastating German measles epidemic, his colleague developed the vaccine that would one day wipe out homegrown rubella. The rubella vaccine and others made with those fetal cells have protected more than 150 million people in the United States, the vast majority of them preschoolers. The new cells and the method of making them also led to vaccines that have protected billions of people around the world from polio, rabies, chicken pox, measles, hepatitis A, shingles and adenovirus.
 
Meredith Wadman’s masterful account recovers not only the science of this urgent race, but also the political roadblocks that nearly stopped the scientists. She describes the terrible dilemmas of pregnant women exposed to German measles and recounts testing on infants, prisoners, orphans, and the intellectually disabled, which was common in the era. These events take place at the dawn of the battle over using human fetal tissue in research, during the arrival of big commerce in campus labs, and as huge changes take place in the laws and practices governing who “owns” research cells and the profits made from biological inventions. It is also the story of yet one more unrecognized woman whose cells have been used to save countless lives.
 
With another frightening virus—measles—on the rise today, no medical story could have more human drama, impact, or urgency than The Vaccine Race.

Product Details

ISBN-13:	9780143111313
Publisher:	Penguin Publishing Group
Publication date:	09/04/2018
Pages:	464
Sales rank:	639,164
Product dimensions:	5.40(w) x 8.40(h) x 1.20(d)

About the Author

Meredith Wadman has covered biomedical research politics from Washington for twenty years. She is a reporter at  Science and has written for Nature, Fortune, the New York Times, and the Wall Street Journal. A graduate of Stanford and Columbia, she began medical school at the University of British Columbia and completed her medical degree as a Rhodes scholar at the University of Oxford.

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Prologue
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Excerpted from "The Vaccine Race"
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Copyright © 2018 Meredith Wadman.
Excerpted by permission of Penguin Publishing Group.
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Table of Contents

Prologue 1

Part 1 The Cells

Chapter 1 Beginnings 13

Chapter 2 Discovery 19

Chapter 3 The Wistar Reborn 31

Chapter 4 Abnormal Chromosomes and Abortions 44

Chapter 5 Dying Cells and Dogma 57

Chapter 6 The Swedish Source 78

Chapter 7 Polio Vaccine "Passengers" 95

Chapter 8 Trials 112

Part 2 Rubella

Chapter 9 An Emerging Enemy 133

Chapter 10 Plague of the Pregnant 151

Chapter 11 Rabies 164

Chapter 12 Orphans and Ordinary People 175

Chapter 13 The Devils We Know 189

Chapter 14 Politics and Persuasion 204

Chapter 15 The Great Escape 213

Chapter 16 In the Bear Pit 225

Chapter 17 Cell Wars 239

Chapter 18 DBS Defeated 246

Chapter 19 Breakthrough 253

Part 3 The WI-38 Wars

Chapter 20 Slaughtered Babies and Skylab 265

Chapter 21 Cells, Inc. 271

Chapter 22 Rocky Passage 288

Chapter 23 The Vaccine Race 302

Chapter 24 Biology, Inc. 312

Chapter 25 Hayflick's Limit Explained 320

Chapter 26 Boot-Camp Bugs and Vatican Entreaties 333

Chapter 27 The Afterlife of a Cell 341

Epilogue: Where They Are Now 356

Acknowledgments 363

Notes 369

Selected Bibliography 415

Index 421

Reading Group Guide

Questions for Discussion

1. Polio was the most feared infectious disease during Leonard Hayflick’s childhood in 1930s Philadelphia. It was 1955 when a polio vaccine finally became available. Do you have parents or grandparents who remember what it was like before polio vaccine became available? What have they shared with you about that time? What other infectious diseases do they remember from the prevaccine era?

2. What were some of the early problems with the polio vaccine, and how did they create an opportunity for Hayflick? Who was Bernice Eddy and what role did she play in assuring the polio vaccine’s safety? How was her discovery received?

3. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, Wistar Institute scientists tested experimental polio vaccine on newborns and preemies at Philadelphia General Hospital. Why do you think that hospital was chosen? Were the researchers justified in conducting experiments at the hospital?

4. In 1961, Hayflick published the scientific discovery that would bring him lasting fame. What was the discovery and how did it challenge conventional scientific wisdom? How did this discovery lead to a vital vaccine-making tool?

5. Who was Mrs. X? What was her situation in early 1962? How did her life and that of Hayflick come to intersect?

6. Are medical ethics inviolable, unchanging principles or do they change with cultures and with time? Was a wrong done to Mrs. X? If you think so, can it be righted?

7. Who was Roderick Murray and what influences shaped him? Did he trust Hayflick’s human fetal cells as vaccine-making “factories”? Why did it matter what he thought?

8. A major U.S. epidemic in 1964 and 1965 of rubella (a.k.a. German measles) led to the birth of tens of thousands of damaged babies. Who discovered that rubella harms fetuses (when pregnant women become infected), and how did he connect those dots? What do you think it takes for a scientist or a doctor to “see” something that others have overlooked?

9. Stanley Plotkin went to great lengths in his quest to develop a German measles vaccine, testing the vaccine in orphans and intellectually disabled children. In this, was he any different from other medical researchers of his era? If so, how?

10. Was Plotkin’s race against drug companies and NIH insiders to get to market with a rubella vaccine a fair fight? Do you think politics still interferes with vaccine or drug development today? Why or why not?

11. Who was Mary Lasker (chapter 14, page 210) And Dorothy Horstmann (chapter 19, page 253)? How did each of these women wield her power?

12. Do you believe Leonard Hayflick was right or wrong to take every last vial of the vaccine-making cells he derived from Mrs. X’s fetus as he made his “great escape” from the Wistar Institute to Stanford in the family sedan? What about his character made his flight predictable? Are you on the side of the government or of Hayflick in the struggle for ownership of the cells that followed? Do you think what happened to Hayflick was fair? Why or why not?

13. How does The Vaccine Race leave you feeling about the development of many of the childhood vaccines we take for granted today? About the importance of these vaccines? About the strengths and weaknesses of the human beings who do medical research?

14. In the first seven months of 2019, 1,164 cases of measles, the most wildly contagious vaccine-preventable disease, have been logged in the United States—more than in any whole calendar year since 1992. (https://www.cdc.gov/measles/cases-outbreaks.html) For whom is measles particularly dangerous? What makes parents hesitant to vaccinate their kids? How important is historical memory of the bad old, prevaccine, days?

Editorial Reviews

Shortlisted for the Wellcome Book Prize

“Riveting . . . [The Vaccine Race] invites comparison with Rebecca Skloot's 2007 The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks.”—Nature 

“Rich in scientific anecdotes, historical detail and quirky characters. . . She conveys the era’s no-holds-barred approach to science, as well as the altruism of individual scientists and doctors at a time when no one had yet thought of patenting a gene or a living cell… her chapter on the stirrings of entrepreneurship among biologists and universities is an enlightening primer on the birth of the biotech industry.” —Washington Post

“Meticulously researched and carefully crafted . . . The Vaccine Race, is an enlightening telling of the development of vaccines in the mid-20th century. . . . an intelligent and entertaining tome . . . [and] a comprehensive portrait of the many issues faced in the race to develop vaccines.”—Science
 
“A riveting tale of scientific infighting, clashing personalities, sketchy ethics, and the transformation of cell biology from a sleepy scientific backwater to a high-stakes arena where vast fortunes are made.”—The Wall Street Journal

"Meredith Wadman’s fine, new book details the struggle to develop a rubella vaccine—a tale of revolutionary science on the one hand; gloves-off combat on the other. And it confronts a host of hot-button issues, all beautifully explained..reads like a good detective novel."—David Oshinsky, FASEB Journal
 
“Wadman’s research is extensive, and her book is packed with anecdotes and details of the science, the times, and the people.”—The Boston Globe
 
“The Vaccine Race is an important read—for scientists, politicians, physicians, parents and everyone interested in how the world of medical research works. . . . A very compelling read.”—The Huffington Post
 
“This is a story about the war against disease—a war without end—and the development of enormously important vaccines, but in telling that story, in showing how science works, Meredith Wadman reveals much more. Like all wars, that story includes hero'sm, risk-taking, persistence, and fighting against the odds, and, like all wars, that story also includes politics, obtuseness, bureaucracy, and fights over money. It's very well-written and does not oversimplify yet explains clearly even the purely scientific parts of the story. In short, I loved this book.”—John M. Barry, New York Times bestselling author of The Great Influenza
 
“Meredith Wadman rolls up her sleeves and takes an uncompromising look at the sometimes unethical, often crude, and always rough-and-tumble world of one of the greatest success stories in public health: vaccines. What she finds will no doubt surprise you.”—Paul A. Offit, MD, author of Pandora's Lab: Seven Stories of Science Gone Wrong and Autism’s False Prophets
 
“A gripping story with strong resonance in the age of Zika and Ebola—and a powerful reminder of the ways in which researchers approached the ethics of medical testing only fifty years ago.”—Henry T. Greely, Director of Stanford's Center for Law and the Biosciences and author of The End of Sex
 
“The fascinating story of  the scientific battle over—among other important matters—whether human vaccines should be grown in human or animal cells. The hero of this story is Leonard Hayflick, who favored human cells. Fortunately for all of us, he won out.”—Stanley M. Gartler, Prof. Emeritus, Medical Genetics, University of Washington
 
“An exemplary piece of medical journalism.”—Publisher's Weekly (starred review)
 
“An important story well told, featuring the drama and characters needed to make this a candidate for film adaptation.”—Kirkus Reviews
 
“It is a story of human tragedy and greatness, of curiosity and ambition, of turf battles and ethical lapses, and of what we would call today ‘fake news’ and ‘alternative facts’ about the use of cells from an aborted fetus.”—Dallas Morning News

From the Publisher

★ 12/12/2016
Wadman, staff writer for Science, depicts the cutthroat competition, ugly politics, brilliant science, and questionable ethics that underscored the research and development, during the 1960s and ’70s, of vaccines that have protected many millions of Americans from rubella, polio, rabies, and other diseases. She provides an excellent introductory primer on cell biology to complement colorful sketches of the personalities of the pioneering biologists who produced the first live vaccines while challenging scientific tenets and medical ethics. The book is not for the squeamish. Wadman details the surgical and laboratory processes scientists used to develop vaccines, and describes the testing of vaccine prototypes on both children and adults—done mostly without their consent, in orphanages, asylums, schools, and prisons. She also documents the beginnings of the biotechnology industry in the 1980s and the concomitant rise and fall of Leonard Hayflick, who created the crucial WI-38 cell strain and entered into multi-million dollar business agreements before coming under investigation by the National Institutes of Health and getting embroiled in a much-publicized court battle with the U.S. government over ownership of the valuable cells. This is an exemplary piece of medical journalism, and Wadman makes strikingly clear the human costs of medical developments as well as the roles of politics and economics. (Feb.)

Publishers Weekly

01/01/2017
Today, many take for granted that the vaccines administered to prevent measles, mumps, and other diseases are safe and effective. How they got that way is at the center of this compelling account of the development of the first polio, rubella, and rabies vaccines. Wadman, a biomedical reporter who has contributed to Science, Nature, and other publications, concentrates her work on a group of vaccine researchers at the Wistar Institute of Philadelphia in the 1960s and 1970s. Each of these driven, ambitious men hoped to be the first to create a new or better vaccine. Another crucial part of the narrative concerns the development of WI-38—a controversial human fetal cell line still used today to isolate and grow viruses. The author also examines the disturbing practice of testing experimental vaccines on orphans, prisoners, and others before informed consent was mandatory. The basic facts and events of this period in vaccinology history are enlivened by the vivid recollections of key individuals interviewed at length by the author. VERDICT Highly recommended for readers who enjoy medical breakthrough stories such as Thomas Hager's The Demon Under the Microscope and studies of medical research ethics, including Rebecca Skloot's The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks. [See Prepub Alert, 8/26/16.]—Cynthia Lee Knight, Hunterdon Cty. Historical Soc., Flemington, NJ

Library Journal

Author Meredith Wadman shows listeners that science was once a fascinating, twisty search for the truth conducted by committed researchers who operated in financial and ethical environments different from those of today. Narrator Nancy Linari has a lovely smooth voice, and she subtly renders the rivalries, professional slights, and outrageous ethical decisions embedded in the story. Millions of Americans have been protected from rubella, polio, rabies, mumps, and other diseases, thanks to vaccines developed from the cells of a single fetus. Desperate to determine the safety and effectiveness of vaccines, scientists used prisoners, children institutionalized for intellectual disabilities, orphans, and others for testing. While Linari’s voice is beautiful, her timing, pauses, and emphases are not effective in holding the listener’s attention—a shame for such an important work. A.B. © AudioFile 2017, Portland, Maine

OCTOBER 2017 - AudioFile

Author Meredith Wadman shows listeners that science was once a fascinating, twisty search for the truth conducted by committed researchers who operated in financial and ethical environments different from those of today. Narrator Nancy Linari has a lovely smooth voice, and she subtly renders the rivalries, professional slights, and outrageous ethical decisions embedded in the story. Millions of Americans have been protected from rubella, polio, rabies, mumps, and other diseases, thanks to vaccines developed from the cells of a single fetus. Desperate to determine the safety and effectiveness of vaccines, scientists used prisoners, children institutionalized for intellectual disabilities, orphans, and others for testing. While Linari’s voice is beautiful, her timing, pauses, and emphases are not effective in holding the listener’s attention—a shame for such an important work. A.B. © AudioFile 2017, Portland, Maine

OCTOBER 2017 - AudioFile

★ 2016-12-04
A dramatic medical history that reveals the progress and the stumbles, the personalities and the rivalries, in the race to find a vaccine for rubella, or German measles. Science magazine writer Wadman, who has a medical degree from Oxford and a journalism degree from Columbia, has long covered the politics of biomedical research. As she makes immediately clear, rubella, like Zika, inflicts terrible damage on babies whose mothers are infected during their pregnancies. In the 1960s, the search for a safe and effective vaccine was just beginning. Wadman focuses on Leonard Hayflick and Stanley Plotkin, scientists at the Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology at the University of Pennsylvania, and cell line WI-38, derived from the lungs of a fetus legally aborted in Sweden (and used without the mother's consent), which subsequently became key to developing a vaccine that has been given to hundreds of millions of people. Besides informing readers of the role of fetal tissue in biomedical research, the author reveals the shocking methods used by researchers to test vaccines: prior to today's stringent laws about informed consent, the test subjects were often institutionalized mentally disabled children. Rivalries and shenanigans abound in Wadman's complex story. One night, Hayflick removed ampules of the cell line from the lab at Wistar, packed them up in his car, and carried them to his new job at Stanford University. Accusations and lawsuits ensued, as well as struggles for funding, and pharmaceutical companies and government agencies eventually became major players. Wadman's story is much more than just the rubella story, however, for it doesn't end with that vaccine. Strains derived from WI-38 are used today in the manufacture of most human virus vaccines, including those for polio, shingles, mumps, rabies, and hepatitis, and Hayflick's work with cell biology has led to discoveries that have significant implications for theories of human aging. An important story well told, featuring the drama and characters needed to make this a candidate for film adaptation.

Kirkus Reviews