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Product Details
| ISBN-13: | 9781783201549 |
|---|---|
| Publisher: | Intellect Books |
| Publication date: | 08/15/2013 |
| Series: | ISSN |
| Sold by: | Barnes & Noble |
| Format: | eBook |
| Pages: | 140 |
| File size: | 420 KB |
About the Author
STANLEY RAFFEL is an Honorary Fellow at Edinburgh University where he taught contemporary and classic social theory. He has been a Visiting Professor at York University in Toronto. He was born in Boston, MA, and has lived in Scotland since 1971.
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The Method of Metaphor
By Stanley Raffel
Intellect Ltd
Copyright © 2013 Intellect LtdAll rights reserved.
ISBN: 978-1-78320-154-9
CHAPTER 1
Metaphor in Dante
Our first example of a writer who manages to judge phenomena utilizing metaphors will be Dante in the three books of his Divine Comedy.
Inferno
While Dante is certainly not the first or last writer to imagine what happens to sinners in Hell, it has to be said that the punishments he invents are somehow distinctive. For example, hypocrites wear cloaks that 'Outwardly they were gilded dazzling-bright, /But all within was lead, and, weighed thereby' (Dante 1979: [c.1314] Canto XXIII, ll.64–5, 215).
Extreme flatterers such as the courtesan who, when asked by her lover: 'To what degree, have I earned thanks, my love?' replied: 'O, to a very miracle,' have dung coming out of their mouths (Dante 1979: Canto XVIII, ll.133–5, 185). Persons noteworthy for violent tempers are 'tearing each other piecemeal with their teeth' (Canto VII, l.114, 113). Those fated to be submerged in a 'thick pitch', visible only as 'great bubbles black as ink' (Canto XXI, l.19, 201), turn out to have been notorious bribers who specialized in 'subsurface deals and secret money-grubbing' (Canto XXI, l.54, 202).
Attempting to depict what is special about Dante's treatment of these and other sinners, his translator, Dorothy Sayers, writes: 'The "punishment" for sin is simply the sin itself, experienced without illusion' (Dante 1979: 102, note by Sayers). In a similar vein, one of the best Dante interpreters, Charles Williams, writes: 'These punishments [...] are, in some sense, the sin itself' (Williams 1943: 128).
While we will need to specify what Dante's method is for removing any 'illusion' and what 'some sense' could be referencing, both Sayers and Williams are right that Dante does have a way of getting us to experience the sin itself, i.e. its nature, its being. I suggest that he gets us to see what the sin is by managing to depict what it is like. It is, then, by finding an appropriate comparison — a good metaphor — that Dante manages to reveal the nature of these and other sins that place people in the Inferno. However, it is fair to say that not all the metaphors are quite as self- explanatory as the ones noted so far.
Sometimes it helps to know the specific cases of a sin that Dante has in mind. Thus, it begins to make more sense that Dante envisions suicides as trees with 'Discolored leaves and dark, no tender shoots, /But withered and gnarled and tough, no fruit' (Dante 1979: Canto XIII, ll.5–6, 149) once we learn that he is particularly thinking of 'a kind of "suicide wave" about Dante's time' that afflicted the young of Florence (155, note by Sayers).
We might guess that the fate of those so unable to stay separate from other people that they merge with them, taking the following form in Hell, are thieves: 'Ivy to oak never so rooted grew [...] their tints began to mingle and to run/And neither seemed to be what it had been' (Dante 1979: Canto VIII, ll.58–63, 228).
However, it is still informative to learn that one of these thieves whose fate is for 'two faces to fuse themselves, to weld one countenance' (Dante 1979: Canto VIII, ll.71–2, 229) had as his modus operandi: 'to have got into people's houses, disguised as an old beggar' (301, note by Sayers). That is, his fate seems right because how he behaved is like not having a face of his own.
Sometimes it can be necessary to know how Dante understands the sin in order to appreciate how appropriate the metaphor is. Once we know that Dante saw heresy as 'an obduracy of the mind [...] an intellectual obstinacy' (Williams 1943: 125, quoted in Dante 1979: 132, note by Sayers), it makes more sense that the fate of heretics is to be constantly forging an iron coffin for themselves. That is, confining themselves in this way is like what they are doing by being so obstinate.
Other times, local knowledge of the material out of which Dante composes his metaphors can improve our understanding. Once we know that
in Dante's church, the font in the Baptistery was surrounded by holes in which the officiating priests stood, so as not to be jostled by the crowds on days when a great number of bambinos were being baptized at once. (Dante 1979: 192, note by Sayers)
it becomes clearer why Dante imagines the fate of those who sold sacraments as being plunged headfirst into this type of hole. Selling such holy things is like turning one's priestly function upside down.
That Dante's way of understanding a sin is to find an appropriate metaphor for it also applies to what is said to be 'the greatest image in the whole Inferno' (Dante 1979: 275, note by Sayers). Traitors such as Judas and the devil himself are wedged in 'a lake so bound with ice, it did not look like water but like glass' (Canto XXXII, ll.23–4, 271). Sayers suggests how original this version of these sinners' fate is: 'The conception is, I think, Dante's own. Although the Apocalypse of Paul mentions a number of cold torments, these are indiscriminately mingled with the torments by fire and their placing has no structural significance' (275, note by Sayers).
Clearly, Dante's idea is that this is the fate of traitors because to be a traitor is like being ice cold, i.e. to not be able to be receptive even to the warmth that would inevitably be emanating from those closest to us.
As can be anticipated if the argument in the Introduction is sound, syllogisms would be of little use in judging these phenomena. For example, a minor premise that one could perhaps adopt in trying to demonstrate that extreme flattery or hypocrisy is wrong might be that these behaviors amount to lies. But this is debatable and, even if it could be established, it of course remains unclear that to lie is necessarily wrong. Or, even if most would agree with the minor premise that traitors are disloyal, it is not at all evident that disloyalty is necessarily a bad thing.
Instead of trying to show that these behaviors are logically wrong, Dante tries to show how painful they are. To the extent that his metaphors seem appropriate, he is demonstrating that to do any of these things is actually a form of suffering. Even if (which we deny) one could conclude that flattery, hypocrisy, treachery, bribery, violent temper, and the rest were logical mistakes, one would have to have an uncommon level of commitment to logic to go so far as to suffer if all one seemed to be making was a logical mistake. One consequence of this weakness of logic is revealed by the fact that even acts that are deemed to be clearly illogical (such as randomly killing total strangers) tend to require external sanctions — punishments — in order to deter them.
Here we begin to see the singular force of judgments that can stem from an analysis of the nature of things in themselves rather than from existing premises, whether major or minor, that supposedly apply to them. There is no need to threaten an external punishment in order to make it clear that an action is not worth doing. We say Dante is one who manages such judgments and that he does so by being able to come up with appropriate metaphors for what the things he is analyzing are like.
Paradiso
We know, of course, that in the Christian tradition, it is not just that sinners get to be in Hell. Good deeds get us to Heaven. Heaven is supposed to be enjoyable. If Dante is following the same method of analysis to arrive at his version of Heaven that he used to imagine his Hell, now he would be depicting what good deeds are in themselves by imagining what they are like. But what these deeds are like would have to be, not just something appropriate to their nature, but also something pleasurable for it to make sense that these acts can put people in Heaven. Given that the acts are, as we shall see, almost inevitably arduous, and frequently even result in early death, it is difficult to see how what it is like to do them can credibly be seen as pleasurable. That Dante does manage to make what various good deeds are like seem enjoyable is what I hope to make clear in this section.
Relatively early in their trip through Paradise, Dante and his guide Beatrice find themselves on the planet Venus. Given its association with the goddess who gave the planet its name, we can anticipate that souls located here will be noteworthy for an interest in love. But, even at the beginning of the Canto, Dante has a way of indicating what, in particular, it is about love that makes him think of some lovers as achieving Paradise. He says that the reason this planet was named after the Goddess of Love is because 'they took the name and gave it to the star which woos the sun at both its nape and brow' (Dante 1986: [c.1321] Canto VIII, ll.11–2, 93).
Barbara Reynolds explains what it is about the planet that Dante is referencing here:
Venus [...] is sometimes not visible from earth in the morning because she does not rise until after the sun is above the horizon but she is seen at evening after the sun is set (i.e. she gazes at his nape, following behind him); at other times she sets before the sun and rises before him in the morning (i.e. she gazes on his brow). (Dante 1962: 121, note by Reynolds)
Venus, then, is a very ardent wooer: when she is not busy admiring the sun's nape, it is not that she ceases her admiration. Instead she turns her attention to his brow. Dante is preparing us for persons with a noteworthy interest in the behavior of wooing. And what we do find on this planet are persons famous either for wooing or for their susceptibility to being wooed. In particular, Dante notes the presence here of Cunizza da Romano. She is known particularly, among her numerous other amorous adventures, for abandoning her husband, because she was seduced by the famous troubadour, Sordello (later the subject of a poem by Robert Browning). Cunizza says about herself: 'I was o'ermastered by this planet's flame' (Dante 1962: Canto IX, l.33, 126). Also present is Folquet of Marseille, one of the troubadours and so, we presume, singled out as much for his capacity for wooing as Cunizza is for her capacity for being wooed.
The fate Dante imagines for these and innumerable others greatly swayed by the power of love is to be sparks 'circling' (Dante 1962: Canto IX, l.19, 115) or 'whirling' (Canto IX, l.35, 116) within a great wheel of light. In so doing, they copy Venus herself who, Dante writes, was once believed to have 'whirled radiant, shedding love's madness on the [...] world' (Canto VIII, ll.1–3, 115).
Why does it make sense for them to be spinning around? Perhaps the lyrics of a classic pop song can help here. In 'That Old Black Magic (Johnny Mercer, 1942),' because of love 'I am in a spin, loving that spin I am in.'
Love can put us in a spin. It does seem, then, that being in a spin is a metaphor for what it is like to be mad with love, to be either a troubadour who writes love poems or one highly susceptible to their blandishments. Further, since the song also says we love the spin, we have a version not just of what intense love is like but how that (spinning) sensation can be pleasurable. It might be worth mentioning that a more recent song says pretty much the same thing, albeit in more mundane fashion. The group Dead or Alive had a big hit with 'You spin me right round, baby/Right round like a record, baby' (1985).
I suggest, both that Dante has found an appropriate metaphor for what it is like to be a troubadour or to be susceptible to one, and how what this is like can indeed be a form of pleasure, can be, we can say, heavenly.
Leaving Venus, Dante and Beatrice arrive on the Sun. Here they encounter another group of souls. Dante asks us to imagine, concerning these, 'How bright in its own right/Must they have been, which light, /Not colour outlined on the light of/The sun's self' (Dante 1962: Canto X, ll.40–2, 136). These souls are so bright that, even without being a different color from the Sun, they are visible against the light of the Sun. In other words, they shine even brighter than the Sun.
That Dante could be imagining lights of such brightness begins to make sense as soon as we learn, via their spokesperson Thomas Aquinas, that this planet is the home of those known for their intellectual power especially, as was Aquinas for clarifying the most profound and vexing religious issues. Like Plato in The Republic, then, Dante must be thinking that, as the Sun illuminates the world of material objects, thinkers have been able to shed another kind of light on an even more important world — the world of ideas.
As on the previous planet, the souls here are in a circle, which may lead us to believe that, apart from their exceptional brightness, they are not going to be differentiated from lovers. However, it is worth looking in more detail at the nature of this particular circle. Dante writes that there were 'Many surpassing lights in a bright device, we [he and Beatrice] at the centre, /They as a wreath' (Dante 1962: Canto X, ll.64–5, 137).
So, this time the lights are circling around Dante and Beatrice. Another translator says it is as if they formed a crown around their heads (Dante 1986: Canto X, l.65, 121). And the way the lights are circling also is said to be like the way there is sometimes a halo around the moon (Canto X, l.69, 121).
Unlike in the cases of lovers, then, we are asked to imagine these lights as shining on Dante's head. Also, the lights are not spinning wildly. Finally, and what is probably most important, though Dante says there are many lights we soon learn, thanks to Aquinas who proceeds to identify them, that there are actually only 12. Each of them is a very distinguished scholar. Besides Aquinas and his teacher, Albertus Magnus, there are the venerable Bede, Boethius, and others who, while less well known today, are persons who Dante credits as key figures in his own and his time's intellectual development.
What these figures are imagined as like, it seems fair to say, is a very select circle, a small group of leading lights. It can be suggested that this is both an appropriate image for what it is to be such an accomplished intellectual and, at the same time, to be part of such a circle would certainly be just the sort of fate that people like this would enjoy. Furthermore, even the seemingly odd fact that the lights are hovering just above Dante's head is both appropriate for who they are, i.e. a great influence on how he understands the self-same religious matters that are a major part of the content of the entire Commedia and something we can imagine as part of the pleasure of their form of life. As theorists, what could be better than to be a productive influence on someone like Dante?
Arriving on the next planet, Dante 'was aware of having risen higher because I saw the star's candescent smile glow redder than it ever had before' (Dante 1986: Canto XIV, ll.85–7, 171).
From the color, we know he and Beatrice are now on Mars. We can safely assume that this is going to be the home, not of great lovers or great thinkers, but of great warriors. We can also assume that Dante will try to make the warriors appear in some form that shows us what it is like to be one of them. A dazzling thing does appear and Dante's initial description of it certainly does suggest that it is very different from what has presented itself on the previous two planets. First, like Mars it is very red but it is also said to be like a famous natural wonder that is very white. It appears 'just as the Milky Way adorned with stars, some large, some small, gleams white between the Poles, baffling the wisest astrologers' (Dante 1986: Canto XIV, l. 97–9, 171).
The puzzle he is referring to is that what stymied the Ancients about the Milky Way was what sort of body it could be. This interested Dante as well and, in fact, in a previous work, The Convivio (c.1307), he had praised Aristotle for working out the right solution, that it was actually billions of separate stars that produced the effect of one white stripe (Dante 1986: 175, note by Musa).
It can be suggested that we are already beginning to see what being a warrior is like. It is not like being a great thinker, part of a select group, each of whom is easy to distinguish from others. It is instead to be one of a vast number of components, the unity among which is so effective in producing one overall thing that it is not even clear at first that there actually are separate parts that are responsible for making the whole thing. There is also an additional resonance of this image. In a Greek myth that Dante almost certainly would have been familiar with, it is said that the way the Milky Way was formed was by a goddess spilling milk. Just as the goddess produced an impressive white thing by spilling something, the warriors have produced an impressive red thing by spilling something, in their case, blood.
But how is being a warrior as much a source of pleasure as being a great thinker or great lover, as it should be if these souls are actually in Heaven? A further aspect of Dante's metaphor is clearly an attempt to provide an answer to this question. He tells us that his Milky Way has a different pattern than the one in nature. What all the innumerable red lights that are the souls of warriors banded together manage to produce is not one stripe but two, intersecting to form a gigantic red cross. Once we learn who, in fact, the warriors by and large are, this image both manages to be an even more precise version of what it is like to have been one of these warriors and also provides a convincing sense of how they might well take pleasure in their actions, including even in their deaths. What is revealed is that they are not just warriors but, mostly, warriors who took part in the Crusades. What they did, i.e. defended Christianity, was like a way of helping the cross keep its shape and, certainly, if what they did was like this, it would be a great source of pleasure for them.
(Continues...)
Excerpted from The Method of Metaphor by Stanley Raffel. Copyright © 2013 Intellect Ltd. Excerpted by permission of Intellect Ltd.
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Table of Contents
Introduction
Chapter 1: Metaphor in Dante
Chapter 2: Metaphor in Fairy Tales
Chapter 3: Sontag’s Critique of Metaphors
Chapter 4: Abortion
Chapter 5: Metaphors and the Issue of Incommensurability
Chapter 6: Israel and Palestine
Chapter 7: The Problem of Evil
Chapter 8: Tragedy vs Comedy
Chapter 9: Teaching
Chapter 10: Oriented Action
Chapter 11: Bad Metaphors