Table of Contents
Dedication v
Table of Contents vii
Acknowledgements xi
Introduction 1
1.0 Introduction and Background 1
1.1 Editorial Cartoons, Terrorism and Legitimacy: 8
1.2 Overall Aims of the Study and Research Questions 10
1.3 A Rationale for the Study of Editorial Cartoons in Framing Terrorism 11
1.4 Brief Notes on Kenya's Media Landscape and Scope of the Study 15
1.5 Definition of Key Terms and Concepts 17
1.6 Organization of Study 18
Frames, Power and Signification 21
2.0 Theoretical Frameworks 21
2.1 Fractured Frames: Towards a Constructionist Theory of Framing 21
2.2 Incorporating Culture: In Search of a Versatile Framing Paradigm 24
2.2.1 The Constructionist Paradigm of Framing 27
2.2.2 The Dissection of Frames 28
2.2.3 The Constructionist Paradigm: Some Methodological Dilemmas 30
2.3 Bringing Power Back: Ideology and Media Framing 31
2.3.1 The Question of Ideology 33
2.3.2 The Media, Ideology and the Turn to Gramsci 39
2.3.3 Conclusion 45
2.4 The Editorial Cartoon as a Semiological System 47
2.4.1 Semiology and Meaning 50
2.4.2 Incorporating History: Towards a Semio-historical Method 51
2.5 Methodology and Research Methods 53
2.5.1 Newspapers and Editorial Cartoons 53
2.5.2 Selection and Classification of Editorial Cartoons 54
2.5.3 Extraction and Analysis of Frames 55
2.5.4 The Semiological Project within Framing 57
2.5.5 Framing and Ideological Analysis 58
Media and Terrorism 59
3.0 Terrorism, the Media and a Review of Related Works 59
3.1 Defining Terrorism 59
3.1.1 'Terrorism' in History 63
3.1.2 The Old and New Terrorism 66
3.1.3 Defining Terrorism as a Social Construct 69
3.2 The Media and Terrorism Nexus 77
3.2.1 Terrorism and Media Publicity 82
3.2.2 The Question of Recognition and Legitimacy 90
3.3 Conclusion 95
Editorial Cartoons as a Medium 99
4.1 Exploring Editorial Cartoons 99
4.1.2 How Editorial Cartoons Function 101
4.1.3 Editorial Cartoons as Social Constructs 105
4.1.4 The Editorial Cartoon hi the Kenyan Press 107
4.2 Editorial Cartoons and the Framing of Terrorism 115
Framing Terrorism in Kenya's Editorial Cartoons 119
5.1 Findings and Discussions 119
5.2 The August 7th US Embassy Terror Attacks 119
5.2.1 Print Media Coverage and the Embassy Attacks 121
5.2.2 Editorial Cartoons and the Embassy Terror Attacks 123
5.2.3 Counter Hegemonic Frames and the Embassy Attacks 139
5.2.4 Conclusion 147
5.3 Editorial Cartoons and the Framing of 9/11 148
5.3.1 The Universalizing of 9/11 150
5.3.2 Constructing the Enemy: Framing 9/11 as Acts of War 156
5.3.3 Good versus Evil: The Framing of 9/11 as a Cosmic Battle 163
5.3.4 Counter Hegemonic 9/11 Frames 168
5.4 Terror at the Paradise: The Kikambala Terrorist Attacks 180
5.4.1 Editorial Cartoons and the Kikambala Terror Attacks 181
5.4.2 Conclusion 191
5.5 Editorial Cartoons and the War on Terror: A Fight to Finish 192
5.5.1 The War on Terror and the Media 195
5.5.2 Editorial Cartoons and the War on Terror 197
5.5.3 War on Terror and Counter Hegemonic Frames 211
5.5.4 Framing Local Responses to the War on Terror 220
5.5.5 Conclusion 229
5.6 The Rise and Fall of the Terrorist Almighty 231
5.6.1 The Construction of the Terrorist Almighty 235
5.6.2 Towards Pulverizing the Image of the Terrorist Almighty 252
5.6.3 Conclusion 262
Conclusion 265
6.1 Study Overview 268
6.1.1 Framing the Embassy Attacks 270
6.1.2 Framing 9/11 273
6.1.3 Framing the War on Terrorism 273
6.1.4 Framing the Post 9/11 Terror Attacks 275
6.2 Final Thoughts 278
References 283
Books and Articles 283
Newspaper Editorials and Selected Op-Ed Articles 308
List of Figures and References to Editorial Cartoons 311
