Table of Contents
Preface xi
Acknowledgements xiii
1 Introduction 1
1.1 We Are So Very Much Alike 1
1.2 But Oh the Difference 5
1.3 Criminal Justice Models 8
1.4 Problematic Trend 14
1.5 Structure 21
Part I Lessons from the Past: The Anglo-American Exclusionary Rule
2 Evolution and Rationales 27
2.1 Evolution 27
2.1.1 English Law 27
2.1.2 United States Law 32
2.2 Rationales 35
2.2.1 The Reliability Rationale 36
2.2.2 The Self-incrimination Rationale 40
2.2.3 The Deterrence Rationale 41
2.2.4 The Protective Rationale 46
2.3 Conclusion 47
3 The Exclusionary Rule Debates 49
3.1 Arguments against and for the Exclusionary Rule 49
3.1.1 The Exclusionary Rule Causes Criminals to Go Free? 51
3.1.2 Without Textual Basis 52
3.1.3 Serious Crimes Exception? 54
3.1.4 The Exclusionary Rule Deters Police Misconduct 56
3.1.5 Limited to the United States and Common Law Countries? 57
3.2 Are There Alternatives to Exclusion? 59
3.2.1 Criminal Prosecution 60
3.2.2 Civil Damage Actions 62
3.2.3 Complaints and Disciplinary Procedures 65
3.3 Cost-Benefit Balancing of the Exclusionary Rule 69
3.3.1 The Cost-Benefit Approach: United States v. Leon 71
3.3.2 The Metaphor of Balancing: Rhetorical Device 74
3.4 Ending the Myths of the Exclusionary Rule 79
3.5 Conclusion 81
4 Theoretical Constitutional Foundation 83
4.1 The Crucial Building Block: Separation of Powers 84
4.1.1 The Separation of Powers in the Criminal Context 86
4.1.2 Checks and Balances: Search Warrants 88
4.1.3 The Enforcement of Constitutional Rights 91
4.1.4 The Fair Trial Doctrine 92
4.2 The Court, Exclusionary Rule and Police 95
4.2.1 The Court and Exclusionary Rule: Judicial Discretion? 95
4.2.2 The Exclusionary Rule and Police: Tremendous Impact 99
4.2.3 The Court and Police: Judicial Supervision 101
4.3 Powers without Checks and Balances? 102
4.3.1 Judges' Rules 102
4.3.2 Unlawfully Retained DNA Evidence 104
4.3.3 Interception 106
4.4 Conclusion 110
Part II Reform for the Future: The Chinese Exclusionary Rule
5 Confessions Obtained by Police Torture 115
5.1 Causes of Police Torture 117
5.1.1 Subjective Causes 119
5.1.2 Objective Causes 122
5.2 Barriers to the Protection of Defendants' Rights 124
5.2.1 "Legal Foundation" of Torture 124
5.2.2 Lacking Enforcement Mechanisms 126
5.2.3 The Political-Legal Committee 127
5.2.4 The Right to Counsel 129
5.3 Too Much Power and Too Little Supervision 138
5.3.1 Broad Investigatory Powers 138
5.3.2 Limited Judicial Supervision 140
5.3.3 The Price of Crime Control 142
5.4 Justification for Torture and Torture Evidence? 144
5.4.1 Ignoring Treaty Obligations 144
5.4.2 Prohibition of Torture is Absolute 145
5.4.3 Slippery Slopes 146
5.5 Conclusion 149
6 The Operation of the Exclusionary Rule 151
6.1 Judicial Response to Police Torture 152
6.1.1 The Du Peiwu Case 153
6.1.2 The Liu Yong Case 154
6.1.3 The Court's Response: Passive Attitude 156
6.2 Burden and Standard of Proof 160
6.2.1 Heavy Burden on Defendants 161
6.2.2 Limited Burden on the Prosecution 163
6.2.3 A Party That Asserts It Must Prove It? 165
6.2.4 Anglo-American Approach 168
6.3 Evidence Obtained by Illegal Search and Seizure 171
6.3.1 Deficiency of Search and Seizure Law 172
6.3.2 General Warrants 175
6.3.3 The End Justifies the Means? 177
6.4 Conclusion 180
7 Shaping the Exclusionary Rule in Practice 183
7.1 The Exclusion of Illegally Obtained Confessions 185
7.1.1 The Mandatory Confession Exclusionary Rule 186
7.1.2 The Inadequacy of the Discretionary Exclusion 187
7.1.3 Opinions of the Supreme Court and Supreme Procuratorate 190
7.2 The Exclusion of Illegally Obtained Physical Evidence 191
7.2.1 The Strict Search and Seizure Exclusionary Rule 192
7.2.2 Adopting the British Approach? 193
7.2.3 Complementary Measures 196
7.3 Problems with Regional Rules of Criminal Evidence 199
7.3.1 Future Dangerousness: Exceptions Replace the Exclusionary Rule 200
7.3.2 Once the Evidence Can Prove Facts, Is It Admissible? 201
7.3.3 The Absence of the Search and Seizure Exclusionary Rule 202
7.4 Conclusion 204
8 Conclusion 209
8.1 The Constitutional Foundation of the Exclusionary Rule 210
8.1.1 Separation of Powers 210
8.1.2 The Positive Duties 212
8.2 Lessons from Anglo-American Exclusionary Rule History 214
8.2.1 No Shortcut Methods 215
8.2.2 The Right to be Free from Torture 216
8.2.3 The Right to be Free from Illegal Searches and Seizures 217
8.3 Shaping the Chinese Exclusionary Rule 218
8.3.1 No Feasible Alternative to the Exclusionary Rule 218
8.3.2 The Confession Exclusionary Rule 220
8.3.3 The Search and Seizure Exclusionary Rule 221
8.4 Conclusion 222
Bibliography 227
Index 239
