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Overview
Product Details
| ISBN-13: | 9781138653702 |
|---|---|
| Publisher: | Taylor & Francis |
| Publication date: | 07/20/2017 |
| Edition description: | Revised |
| Pages: | 460 |
| Product dimensions: | 6.00(w) x 9.00(h) x (d) |
About the Author
Zachary A. Smith is Regents' Professor of Environmental and Natural Resources Policy and Administration in the Department of Politics and International Affairs at Northern Arizona University.
Peter Jacques is Professor of the School of Politics, Security, and International Affairs and the National Center for Integrated Coastal Research at the University of Central Florida. His other book with Routledge is the second edition of Sustainability: The Basics.
Table of Contents
Preface xiAbbreviations xv
About the Author xix
The Poljcy-Making Process
Ecosystem Interdependence 1
The Steady State 4
Common Pool Resources 4
Summary 5
Notes 6
Changing Cultural and Social Beliefs: From Conservation to Environmentalism 7
Dominant Social Paradigm 7
Economics and Growth 8
The Role of Religion 11
Science and Technology: Our Views of Nature 12
Toward Better Science Policy 15
History of the Environmental Movement 16
Dominance 16
Early Awakening 16
Early Conservationist 17
Later Conservationist 17
The Reawakening 18
Complacency 19
The Little Reagan Revolution 19
Post-Reagan Resurgence 19
Interest Groups 20
Public Opinion and the Environment 22
Demographics 24
Elections 25
Environmental Discourse 26
Survivalism 27
Prometheans 27
Administrative Rationalism 28
Democratic Pragmatism 28
Economic Rationalism 29
Sustainable Development 29
Ecological Modernization 30
Green Romanticism 30
Green Rationalism 31
Summary 31
Notes 32
The Regulatory Environment 36
The Regulatory Context 36
Science and Risk Analysis 37
Unanticipated Consequences 39
Cost-Benefit Analysis 40
The Role of Government 41
Approaches to Regulation 43
Fundamentals of Environmental Law 45
Summary 47
Notes 48
The Political and Institutional Setting 49
The Institutional Setting 49
Formal Institutions 49
Informal Institutions 52
Institutional Biases 55
Incrementalism 55
Decentralization 56
Short-Term Bias 56
Ideological Bias 57
Private Nature of Public Policy Making 58
Crisis and Reforms 58
The Political Setting 60
Pluralism 60
The Regulators 64
Summary 80
Notes 81
Environmental Policy
Air 85
Sources 85
Health Effects 88
Motor Vehicles 90
Air Pollution: Law, Regulations, and Enforcement 93
Regulatory Innovations 96
Regulatory Issues 99
Toxic Air Pollution 101
Acid Rain 104
Stratospheric Ozone 108
The Greenhouse Effect (Global Warming) 113
Summary 118
Notes 118
Water 126
Sources 127
Nonpoint Sources of Pollution 129
Groundwater Pollution 130
Health Effects of Water Pollution 131
Water Law and Regulation 132
Clean Water Act 132
The CWA and Nonpoint Pollution Sources 134
The CWA and the Regulatory Environment 134
Safe Drinking Water Act 136
Criticisms of Water Pollution Policy 138
The Paradox in Water Pollution Policy 140
Summary 144
Notes 144
Energy 149
History of Energy 151
Industrial Revolution 151
Oil and War 151
Role of Personal Consumption 152
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries and the Oil Crises 153
Development of Nuclear Power 156
Development of a National Energy Policy 157
Nonrenewable Energy Sources 161
Coal 161
Oil 163
Natural Gas 164
Geothermal Energy 164
Nuclear Power 165
Renewable Energy 166
Hydropower 167
Solar Power 168
Wind Power 169
Biomass 170
Conservation and Energy Efficiency: Some Suggestions for the Future 172
Conservation in Homes and Buildings 173
Conservation in Transportation 174
Conservation in Industry 175
Obstacles to Conservation 176
An Ecological Conclusion 177
Summary 178
Notes 178
Toxic and Hazardous Waste 189
Solid Waste 190
What Is Solid Waste? 190
Scope of the Problem 191
Disposal Methods 192
Regulations 193
Solutions 194
Hazardous Wastes 198
Nature of the Problem 198
Disposal Methods 200
Federal Regulations 204
Regulatory Problems 208
The Policy Paradox in Hazardous Waste Management 211
Summary 214
Notes 214
Land Management Issues 222
Local Land-Use Planning 222
Types of Land-Use Planning 223
Urban Planning 224
Smart Growth 226
Soil Erosion 228
Farmland Conversion 229
Desertification 231
Federal Land Management 231
Multiple-Use 232
Recreation 233
Fee Demonstration Project 233
Commercial Recreation Permits and Concessions 233
Fire Management 234
Roadless Areas 235
Wilderness 235
History 235
Proposed Wilderness and Wilderness Study Areas 237
National Park Service Management 239
Endangered Species 240
Ecosystem Management 244
Summary 246
Notes 246
International Environmental Issues 253
Population and Food Production 254
Desertification and Food Production 259
Global Pollution 260
The Ozone Layer 260
The Greenhouse 262
Deforestation 264
Ocean Pollution 265
Less Developed Countries: North Vs. South 266
International Conflict 268
Summary 270
Notes 271
International Environmental Management 275
International Environmentalism 275
Alternative Political Systems 277
Market-Based Economies 277
Collective Ownership Systems 278
Eastern Europe and the Former Soviet Union 278
China 280
International Environmental Management 281
Common Pool Resources 282
Creation of an IGO 283
Economic Globalization and the Second Industrial Revolution 285
International Regulatory Efforts 287
Controlling Oceanic Pollution 287
Atmospheric Conventions 288
Hazardous Waste Control at the International Level 290
Protection of Endangered and Threatened Species 290
Trends in the International Regulatory Process 291
Summary 292
Notes 292
Conclusion 296
Notes 299
How We Study Public Policy-Theoretical Approaches 300
The National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, as Amended 308
Index 316
Preface
The policy-making process described in many public policy and American government texts reveals just the tip of the iceberg. This book, designed for courses on environmental policy, environmental studies, and public policy and as supplemental reading in American government, public administration and planning, and other courses, exposes the rest of the iceberg: the workings of government that are rarely visible but necessary for an appreciation of the formation of environmental policy. It examines U.S. environmental policy in air, water, land use, agriculture, energy, waste disposal, and other areas, and, in so doing, provides an introduction to the policy-making process in the United States.
A paradox is an apparently contradictory combination of opposing ideas. The paradox of environmental policy is that we often understand what the best short- and long-term solutions to environmental problems are, yet the task of implementing these solutions is either left undone or is completed too late. Although this is a general characteristic of policy formation in the United States, it is particularly true of environmental policy. The explanation lies in the nature of the policy-making process. A few broad examples will illustrate the nature of the environmental policy paradox.
Problems of farming and food production in the United States include the loss of topsoil due to soil erosion, the loss of soil productivity, and the overuse of pesti~1des and fertilizers. Although opinions vary, there is strong evidence that a shift to organic farming would increase farm income and reduce soil erosion and nutrient depletion while meeting American food needs and reducing oilimports. Most people who study the matter feel we would be better off in the long run converting to organic farming. However, regardless of the potential benefits of organic farming, the incentives operating on policy makers, which include, for example, the money and influence of the manufacturers of pesticides, make it difficult to make significant changes in U.S. farm policy. That is what we call a paradox of environmental policy.
Energy provides another good example. Although estimates vary as to how long fossil fuels will last, there is widespread agreement that a transition must be made from fossil to renewable fuels. This transition will have a significant impact on our economic, social, cultural, and political lives. The paradox is that today little is being done in the public sector to prepare for this change.
Any examination of environmental policy must begin with a discussion of the setting in which policy is formulated. No simple explanations or definitions can completely convey why or why not a given policy comes into being. Limitations on human comprehension, as well as in the quality and extent of information available, make it difficult to fully understand the cause-and-effect relationships in public policy formation.
This book, nevertheless, provides a basic understanding of why some environmental ideas shape policy while others do not. We describe the formal institutional setting in which environmental policy is developed, the major participants involved, and the political and institutional incentives that motivate those attempting to influence the policy-formation system. Through an understanding of the informal political and institutional incentives that influence policy formation, the reader will be able to see that the system, though complex and uncertain, does respond to appropriate inputs. It is important to know how the system works because only when we understand how the game is played can we affect changes in the system.
ORGANIZATION
The book is divided into two parts. Part One, The Policy-Making Process, provides an overview of how governmental policy is made in the United States. It emphasizes informal and noninstitutional aspects of the process and the incentives in the policy-making process that direct participant behavior. Also, Part One examines the rise of environmentally based litigation in the United States. Specifically we discuss the legal processes that come into play when citizens pursue environmental policy goals in the courts. This in an important consideration because, as we will see, often the courts are the only policy avenue available to groups, like many environmental groups, that lack the resources needed to have influence in other policy-making arenas—like legislative bodies.
Before delving into the policy-making process of environmental policy, however, Chapter 1 introduces ecosystems and the study of ecology, thus setting the stage for the chapters that follow. Good environmental policy is based on an understanding of how the physical environment works. Chapter 1 also provides a general discussion of the interdependence of ecosystems and explains the need to evaluate environmental policy from a multidisciplinary perspective. The complexity of ecosystem interdependence requires, in many cases, an international or global perspective.
Chapter 2 explores the relationship of our dominant social paradigm (those clusters of Western cultural beliefs, values, and ideals that influence our thinking about society, government, and individual responsibility) to environmental policy formation. The chapter also summarizes the history of the environmental movement and public opinion about environmental problems—two important components of the Western industrial dominant social paradigm.
Chapter 3 examines the regulatory environment in the environmental policy area. This discussion includes an examination of the current regulatory framework in the United States, various regulatory alternatives that have been suggested, and some of the assumptions that underlie current thinking about appropriate environmental regulations.
Chapter 4 examines the institutional setting of the policy-making process. The incentives operating on participants in the process and the role of interest groups are discussed along with advantages certain policy-making participants enjoy when attempting to influence environmental policy. These incentives include the short-term incentives available to policymakers for evaluating policy options; incentives or disincentives in dealing with externalities (i.e., those costs or benefits of a course of action not directly involved in the policy); the status quo orientation of the system; the role of sub-governments or "iron triangles" in certain policy areas; and the incremental nature, in most cases, of policy formation in the United States. Chapter 4 also describes more formal means of environmental control, such as the requirement of an environmental impact statement, or EIS, and introduces the administrative agencies most involved in environmental administration in the United States. Finally, the effects of environmental litigation on the system are examined and the environmental laws governing environmental policies are discussed, here and in Part Two of the book.
In Part Two we examine environmental policy in seven chapters that discuss air pollution, energy policy, solid and hazardous waste policy, land management, international environmental problems, and international environmental management. In each area there are current policies that do not effectively address the problems they were meant to deal with. This is true even though experts are often in agreement about what needs to be done. As a result, the paradox of environmental policy is that the system often produces policies that are fundamentally unable to address environmental problems adequately. We will examine these policies.
It is my hope that after reading this book you will have a better understanding of environmental problems, the system that produced these problems, and what you can do to help produce a better future. There is much you can do when you understand how the system works.