The Enlightenment: The Pursuit of Happiness, 1680-1790

by Ritchie Robertson

Overview

Notes From Your Bookseller

In a brilliant and significant revisionist history of the Enlightenment, Ritchie Robertson challenges orthodox tropes, tapping into a wealth of new sources — literature, philosophy, science and religion — to show that the era was indeed sprawling in thought. This is “big” history and it is delicious!

A magisterial history that recasts the Enlightenment as a period not solely consumed with rationale and reason, but rather as a pursuit of practical means to achieve greater human happiness.

One of the formative periods of European and world history, the Enlightenment is the fountainhead of modern secular Western values: religious tolerance, freedom of thought, speech and the press, of rationality and evidence-based argument. Yet why, over three hundred years after it began, is the Enlightenment so profoundly misunderstood as controversial, the expression of soulless calculation? The answer may be that, to an extraordinary extent, we have accepted the account of the Enlightenment given by its conservative enemies: that enlightenment necessarily implied hostility to religion or support for an unfettered free market, or that this was “the best of all possible worlds”. Ritchie Robertson goes back into the “long eighteenth century,” from approximately 1680 to 1790, to reveal what this much-debated period was really about.

Robertson returns to the era’s original texts to show that above all, the Enlightenment was really about increasing human happiness – in this world rather than the next – by promoting scientific inquiry and reasoned argument. In so doing Robertson chronicles the campaigns mounted by some Enlightened figures against evils like capital punishment, judicial torture, serfdom and witchcraft trials, featuring the experiences of major figures like Voltaire and Diderot alongside ordinary people who lived through this extraordinary moment.

In answering the question 'What is Enlightenment?' in 1784, Kant famously urged men and women above all to “have the courage to use your own intellect”. Robertson shows how the thinkers of the Enlightenment did just that, seeking a well-rounded understanding of humanity in which reason was balanced with emotion and sensibility. Drawing on philosophy, theology, historiography and literature across the major western European languages, The Enlightenment is a master-class in big picture history about the foundational epoch of modern times. 

Product Details

ISBN-13:	9780062410658
Publisher:	HarperCollins
Publication date:	02/23/2021
Pages:	1008
Sales rank:	217,395
Product dimensions:	9.10(w) x 6.00(h) x 2.70(d)

About the Author

Ritchie Robertson is Professor of German at Oxford University, a fellow of the British Academy, and a lead reviewer for the Times Literary Supplement.

Table of Contents

List of Illustrations xiii

Preface xv

Note on Translations xxiii

1 Happiness, Reason and Passion 1

Is Happiness Possible? 4

Freedom from Fear 9

The Witch Craze and its End 14

Reason 21

The Passions 32

Interpreting the Enlightenment 37

2 The Scientific Revolution 42

Bacon or Descartes? 44

Newton and Newtonianism 56

Experimental Philosophy 65

The Heavens and the Earth 71

Science and the Enlightenment Public 77

The Harmony of Science and Religion 82

3 Toleration 85

Against Toleration 87

Persecution in France 91

Toleration in the Dutch Republic 94

Britain: 'a Persecuting Society' 99

Toleration in the Holy Roman Empire 105

William Penn's Holy Experiment 108

Arguments for Toleration 111

Bayle 115

Voltaire 123

Lessing 126

Goethe 130

Beyond Toleration 133

4 The Religious Enlightenment 136

Optimism 137

Physico-Theology 147

Religious Moderation in England and Scotland 157

Theological Enlightenment in Germany 166

The Catholic Enlightenment 170

Enlightenment in the Orthodox World 176

The Jewish Enlightenment 179

The Study of the Bible 182

The New Testament 191

5 Unbelief and Speculation 199

The Disenchantment of the World 200

Medicalization 206

Secularization? 210

The Fear of Hell 215

Natural Religion 220

Voltaire and the Bible 224

Atheism 232

An Evil God? 241

New Religious Speculations 245

The Power of Feeling 249

Enlightened Dying 253

6 Science and Sensibility 261

Self-Love and Sympathy 262

The Science of Man: Hume's Treatise 274

Anthropologies 282

The Science of Woman 293

Sexual Relations without Sin 301

Classifying Humanity 307

Diderot and the Grey Areas of Humanity 317

Empathetic Fiction 323

Sentiment and Society 340

7 Sociability 351

Politeness 353

The Public Sphere 358

Societies 365

The Republic of Letters 373

The Ethos of Scholarship 377

The Virtual Public Sphere 382

Censorship 389

Unsociability: Hume vs Rousseau 395

8 Practical Enlightenment 401

Police 401

The Encyclopédie 412

Agriculture 420

Medicine 427

Bringing up Children 434

Schools and Universities 445

Punishment 450

9 Aesthetics 464

Arts, Art, Aesthetics 465

Cartesian Aesthetics: Neoclassicism 468

Taste 474

Genius 483

Art and Morality 490

Imitation 493

Tragedy 500

The Sublime 506

10 The Science of Society 512

Montesquieu: The Spirit of the Laws 513

Commerce 521

Political Economy 529

Adam Smith and The Wealth of Nations 535

Luxury 543

11 Philosophical History 555

Writing Secular History 555

Two Centres of History: Göttingen and Edinburgh 562

Two Histories of England: David Hume and Catharine Macaulay 572

Gibbon's Decline and Fall 582

The Future 595

12 Cosmopolitanism 600

Citizens of the World 600

Travel and Travel Writers 606

Myths of China 621

Empire 626

The Histoire des deux Indes 631

The Discovery of Asia 637

The Primitive 642

Cultural Cosmopolitanism: Forster and Herder 648

13 Forms of Government 655

Monarchy 656

Enlightened Absolutism 662

Republics 683

Rousseau and the Social Contract 692

14 Revolutions 706

The American Revolution 707

The French Revolution 717

At Long Last, an English Enlightenment 735

Some Enlightenment Legacies 745

Conclusion: The Battle over the Enlightenment 769

References 781

Select Bibliography 893

Index 927

Editorial Reviews

★ 10/19/2020

The so-called “Age of Reason” also put emotion and conscience at the center of a new social ideology, according to this sweeping study of the Enlightenment. Robertson (Goethe: A Very Short Introduction), a professor of German at Oxford University, defends Enlightenment thinkers against criticisms from the reactionary right and the postmodern left. Rather than preaching an arid rationalism, he contends, “Enlighteners” extolled sympathy and innate moral feelings as “the glue holding society together” and played on human emotions to support the abolition of capital punishment and slavery. They also were eager to reconcile science with belief in God; preferred persuasion and reform to violent change and state regimentation (most, Robertson claims, were antagonistic to the French Revolution); put empirical evidence and individual freedom above doctrine and authority; and held out happiness as the ultimate goal of inquiry and policy. Robertson’s far-flung thematic survey probes the work of philosophers and ideologues, among them Thomas Jefferson, Voltaire, and Immanuel Kant, and expertly interprets the period’s art and literature, including Samuel Richardson’s melodramatic novel Clarissa, which set all of Europe to weeping. Thanks to Robertson’s elegant prose and lucid analyses, this massive and deeply erudite work serves as a stimulating and accessible introduction to a watershed period in the intellectual development of the West. (Feb.)

Publishers Weekly

"Robertson’s far-flung thematic survey probes the work of philosophers and ideologues, among them Thomas Jefferson, Voltaire, and Immanuel Kant, and expertly interprets the period’s art and literature, including Samuel Richardson’s melodramatic novel Clarissa, which set all of Europe to weeping. Thanks to Robertson’s elegant prose and lucid analyses, this massive and deeply erudite work serves as a stimulating and accessible introduction to a watershed period in the intellectual development of the West." — Publishers Weekly (starred review)

“Mr. Robertson is a splendid writer, astoundingly versed in European letters and gifted at vividly sketching the views of the 'Enlighteners.' . . . Robertson, armed with a prodigious knowledge of the Enlightenment’s literary output, has captured the tone and spirit of this milieu." — Wall Street Journal

"Robertson expands the conception of the Enlightenment from familiar topics like the scientific revolution to include areas as diverse as public administration and manners. He portrays not only well-known philosophers but also the many civil servants and functionaries, from Philadelphia to St. Petersburg, who gave practical shape to Enlightenment ideals. For Robertson, this period was ultimately “an age of feeling, sympathy and sensibility,” in which the goal was human happiness in this life." — The New Yorker

"Deeply impressive . . . bracingly eloquent narrative . . . a big, enthusiastic book." — Christian Science Monitor

“There’s a certain kind of book that defies a direct approach. It arrives on the doorstep, several inches thick, dense with learning. . . . Ritchie Robertson’s thousand-page The Enlightenment [is] a beautifully written account of a period that everyone has heard of but few pause to think about." — AirMail

"A long, thoroughly satisfying history of an era that was not solely about reason but was “also the age of feeling, sympathy and sensibility.” Robertson, a professor of German at Oxford, has clearly read all the original sources and most modern scholars and arrived at his own conclusions, which are alternately unsettling and stimulating and consistently engaging." — Kirkus Reviews (starred review)

"Distinguished German scholar Robertson has produced a monumental work on a monumental topic....indispensable for advanced students and readers of history, especially those wishing to learn more about this pivotal era." — Library Journal

"Fascinating . . . fresh and expansive.” — Booklist

From the Publisher

"Robertson expands the conception of the Enlightenment from familiar topics like the scientific revolution to include areas as diverse as public administration and manners. He portrays not only well-known philosophers but also the many civil servants and functionaries, from Philadelphia to St. Petersburg, who gave practical shape to Enlightenment ideals. For Robertson, this period was ultimately “an age of feeling, sympathy and sensibility,” in which the goal was human happiness in this life."

The New Yorker

"Fascinating… fresh and expansive.

Booklist

"Deeply impressive…bracingly eloquent narrative…a big, enthusiastic book."

Christian Science Monitor

There’s a certain kind of book that defies a direct approach. It arrives on the doorstep, several inches thick, dense with learning … Ritchie Robertson’s thousand-page The Enlightenment [is] a beautifully written account of a period that everyone has heard of but few pause to think about."

AirMail

[Mr. Robertson] is [a] splendid writer, astoundingly versed in European letters and gifted at vividly sketching the views of the “Enlighteners.”… Robertson, armed with a prodigious knowledge of the Enlightenment’s literary output, has captured the tone and spirit of this milieu."

Wall Street Journal

"Fascinating… fresh and expansive.

Booklist

"Robertson expands the conception of the Enlightenment from familiar topics like the scientific revolution to include areas as diverse as public administration and manners. He portrays not only well-known philosophers but also the many civil servants and functionaries, from Philadelphia to St. Petersburg, who gave practical shape to Enlightenment ideals. For Robertson, this period was ultimately “an age of feeling, sympathy and sensibility,” in which the goal was human happiness in this life."

The New Yorker

[Mr. Robertson] is [a] splendid writer, astoundingly versed in European letters and gifted at vividly sketching the views of the “Enlighteners.”… Robertson, armed with a prodigious knowledge of the Enlightenment’s literary output, has captured the tone and spirit of this milieu."

Wall Street Journal

01/01/2021

Distinguished German scholar Robertson (Medieval and Modern Languages, Oxford Univ.; Goethe: A Very Short Introduction) has produced a monumental work on a monumental topic. The Enlightenment is often credited with the formation of modern Western society, with its emphasis on reason, scientific inquiry, religious tolerance, and democratic developments. Robertson shows that some of these assumptions are actually misconstrued; for instance, as opposed to being disimpassioned, Enlightened philosophers, scholars, and scientists were often quite passionate and emotionally involved in their beliefs and callings. The work spans the long 18th century (1680–1790), discussing the scientific discoveries, religious toleration advances, and revolutions in politics and economics spawned by this era. In addition to citing the great names of the Enlightenment, including Isaac Newton, Adam Smith, and Benjamin Franklin, Robertson also includes the thoughts and opinions of poets such as Goethe and novelists such as Defoe, providing a view of the Enlightenment from artists. Robertson does not talk down to his audience, and this information-rich volume, with its giant cast of characters and intensive philosophical discussions, is no introductory work. VERDICT A giant tome that will be indispensable for advanced students and readers of history, especially those wishing to learn more about this pivotal era.—Jeffrey Meyer, Iowa Wesleyan Univ.

Library Journal

★ 2020-11-05
A long, thoroughly satisfying history of an era that was not solely about reason but was “also the age of feeling, sympathy and sensibility.”

Robertson, a professor of German at Oxford, has clearly read all the original sources and most modern scholars and arrived at his own conclusions, which are alternately unsettling and stimulating and consistently engaging. He begins by questioning the picture of the Enlightenment as an “age of reason.” In fact, obtaining truth through logic and calculation was an old tradition. The ancients denigrated observation because human senses were imperfect. Augustine condemned curiosity as an insult to God. Robertson prefers to consider this era as an age of “good sense.” Thinkers began to examine time-honored institutions such as government or the church for evidence that they achieved their purpose: human well-being or “happiness” as expressed by the Declaration of Independence. This period also saw the scientific revolution, and Robertson delivers a masterly overview, but he devotes far more text to religion, which, unlike science, preoccupied almost everyone. Despite the belief among some conservatives today, it was not an era of irreligion. Almost all Enlighteners believed that “God had planned the universe in accordance with laws (which had recently been discovered by Isaac Newton), and had then left it to run its orderly course. Only a small minority thought there was no God, and they took care not to advertise their skepticism.” The author covers atheism in only nine pages. Except for the near absence of politics, war, and trade, this is a magisterial history of Europe and the West during this period, featuring more than 100 chapters, each rarely longer than 10 pages, and offering delightful analyses of its ideas, individuals, and controversies. Other authors compose entire volumes on medicine, child-rearing, the American Revolution, and women’s history; innumerable biographies examine Voltaire, Hume, Gibbon, Rousseau, Adam Smith, and lesser-known contemporaries. Robertson delivers his thoughts on each in short chapters, most of them jewels.

An entirely absorbing doorstop history of ideas.

Kirkus Reviews

Narrator Jonathan Keeble’s warm voice elucidates the enduring works of the thinkers, writers, and practical philosophers known as “Enlighteners” in this sweeping account of the influential period of Western history between 1680 and 1790. Author Robertson uses literature, particularly fiction, to illuminate the attitudes and philosophies of this period of great intellectual exploration and vibrant discussion of concepts such as happiness, the rights of man, humanitarian values, and the nature of human sensibility. Keeble shifts his rich voice to deeper tones to denote quotations and passages from Enlighteners. This extensive period of the creative intermingling of philosophy, science, and literature is brought to life through Keeble’s performance, which captivates listeners from the beginning to the end of this lengthy audiobook. M.B.K. © AudioFile 2021, Portland, Maine

JUNE 2021 - AudioFile

Narrator Jonathan Keeble’s warm voice elucidates the enduring works of the thinkers, writers, and practical philosophers known as “Enlighteners” in this sweeping account of the influential period of Western history between 1680 and 1790. Author Robertson uses literature, particularly fiction, to illuminate the attitudes and philosophies of this period of great intellectual exploration and vibrant discussion of concepts such as happiness, the rights of man, humanitarian values, and the nature of human sensibility. Keeble shifts his rich voice to deeper tones to denote quotations and passages from Enlighteners. This extensive period of the creative intermingling of philosophy, science, and literature is brought to life through Keeble’s performance, which captivates listeners from the beginning to the end of this lengthy audiobook. M.B.K. © AudioFile 2021, Portland, Maine

JUNE 2021 - AudioFile