Read an Excerpt
The Antarctic Dive Guide
By Lisa Eareckson Kelley PRINCETON UNIVERSITY PRESS
Copyright © 2015 Lisa Eareckson Kelley
All rights reserved.
ISBN: 978-0-691-16344-4
CHAPTER 1
THE CONTINENT OF ANTARCTICA
Overview
Around 200 million years ago Antarctica was joined with Australia, Africa, South America, India, and New Zealand, as part of the supercontinent of Gondwana. As tectonic plates groaned and shifted across the globe, Gondwana began to break apart, its pieces creating the continents and islands we know today. Settling into its south polar position, Antarctica began to cool rapidly. The world's fifth largest continent, Antarctica's 13-9 million square kilometers feature massive mountain ranges, hills, valleys, and plains. The continent's present shape has been best described as a 'stingray,' the tail pointing towards South America's Tierra Del Fuego, and the head towards the Indian Ocean. Antarctica's most remarkable feature however, is that 98% of its landmass is covered in ice, measuring 4,775 m thick in some places. Additionally, the continent effectively doubles in size as sea ice extends up to 1,000 km from the coast during the Antarctic winter.
Although Antarctica's political boundary encompasses everything below 60°S, the environmental boundary of the Antarctic Convergence is considered the true start of Antarctic ecology. The convergence occurs as the cooler southern ocean waters meet those of the warmer northern oceans. Here this interface acts as a mixing agent, bringing an upwelling of nutrients to the surface. Although the water surrounding the Antarctic rarely gets above the freezing point, it is some of the most nutrient rich in the world, creating a thriving environment for creatures large and small.
History
Like many lands in ancient history, Antarctica was hypothesized to exist before it was actually discovered, and reports dating back as far as 650AD proclaimed a great area of frozen land in the south. Exploration exploded in the 1400s, as explorers began to investigate the most southerly latitudes, searching for new routes to India and South America. During this time, incredible revelations were made about the size, shape, and diversity of our planet. Alas, due to the extreme weather conditions of our southern oceans and unreliable navigation techniques, the great southern continent, known then as Terra Australis Incognita, continued to elude explorers for many centuries.
Sailors and explorers continued the search for the great white continent without success, a prime example being Captain James Cook in 1773, who despite pushing well below the Antarctic circle to 70°S, was stopped by a barrier of sea ice and never sighted land. On the other hand, when Bellinghausen became the first person to glimpse land in 1820, his splendid efforts in conquering this southern enigma went largely unnoticed by the industrial world. It was not until the advent of commercial sealing and whaling in the late 1700s that exploration became a sustainable business. As the sealers and whalers devoured the marine mammal populations and looked further into the most southern reaches of the ocean for more viable resources, they also made the first surveys and charts of Antarctica.
Having thoroughly investigated the accessible shoreline, by the early 1900s many expeditions were being sent to explore the interior of the white continent. The first overwintering ashore took place on Cape Adare in the Ross Sea, as part of the British Southern Cross Expedition of 1898–1900, led by Carsten Borchgrevink. Explorers and entrepreneurs flocked to Antarctica in the following years, and the more they learned, the more intriguing this last continent became. They were attracted to the continent for personal, nationalistic, and monetary gain, often creating disputes over the sovereignty of a location. These explorations of the heroic era were rife with tragedy and triumph, and many lives were lost between the glories of discovery.
Tourism
Tourism in Antarctica dates back as early as Thomas Cook (1910) and J.R. Stenhouse (1929), its early roots beginning with the Falkland Island Dependancies Government using a mail steamer to take a limited number of passengers annually from the Falkland Islands to South Georgia, as well as the South Orkney and South Shetland Islands. The first dedicated tourist operation occurred on 22 December 1956, when a Douglas DC 6B aircraft of Argentina's Linea Aerea Nacional took 66 passengers on a four-hour scenic flight over the Antarctic Peninsula and adjacent islands.
Antarctica's harsh environment is sure to conjure up ideas of intrepid explorers weathering blistering snowstorms, so it is not surprising that early tourism to the continent was completely expeditionary in nature. With few opportunities, and requiring long and sometimes difficult travel, it remained an adventure that few took the opportunity to enjoy. This all changed in 1966 when Lars Eric Lindblad pioneered the first regular Antarctic expedition cruises. Suddenly, an everyday person could travel to the bottom of the world, experiencing at first-hand what once had only been seen on television, or read about in books and magazines. Using the purpose-built expedition ship, Lindblad Explorer, equipped with small inflatable boats called Zodiacs, visitors were transported to the Antarctic Peninsula on voyages lasting about two weeks. Such voyages took place several times during the summer season.
This small venture started an explosive trend; currently (2014) there are 42 ships or yachts that visit the white continent each summer season, and as many as 35,000 tourists call on the continent each year on yachts, ships, planes and inland expeditions. Today, as tourism in Antarctica becomes more commonplace, expedition activities have diversified from traditional Zodiac landings to more extreme adventures such as camping, kayaking, and diving. Although the type and style of travel has evolved, what drives those who visit has changed little from the days of Shackleton, the desire to investigate the unknown.
The Antarctic tourist season is short, only four months between November and March. This is the austral summer, breeding season, and the ideal time of year to catch the wildlife at its peak, while enjoying up to 20 hours of daylight. Every person has different reasons for going to Antarctica; for some it may be the chance to set foot on the 7th continent, others wish to see penguins in their natural habitat, and, for those of you reading this book, the desire to dive or otherwise experience the underwater realm is the attraction.
Underwater
Underwater benthos in Antarctica remains similar throughout the year. However, the underwater visibility varies drastically both during and between the seasons; the best visibility is found in the winter and early spring before the ice breaks up, releasing trapped plankton and nutrients. Currently tourist diving in the Antarctic is limited to the summer months only, when increasing sunlight and warming waters result in plankton blooms. Although this limits visibility, and despite at times not being able to see more than three meters ahead, a diver can still enjoy spectacular benthos.
DIVING IN ANTARCTICA: PLANNING YOUR VISIT
Recreational Scuba diving in Antarctica is a very specialized form of tourist travel, only becoming available in the last two decades. Before this, diving in the Antarctic was the exclusive realm of scientific programs and journalists. Of the 35,000 people who currently visit the continent each year, divers make up a very small percentage. However, Antarctica is fast becoming the world's number one extreme dive destination, and each year the number of divers grows. Organized dive travel to Antarctica is currently limited to a few expedition companies and charter boats, but this is enough to give you several choices for planning your perfect trip. Getting to Antarctica for diving is not the simplest nor the cheapest vacation to choose, so it is important to plan carefully, asking yourself certain questions before you invest in this once in a lifetime experience: What means of travel - ship or yacht? Do I want to enjoy land activities as well as diving? How many people do I want to travel with? How much money can I afford to spend? How long can I be on vacation? The section below aims to give you some insight into your options, and help you make a more informed choice.
Choosing your dive expedition
The majority of tourism takes place in two distinct regions of Antarctica. The Ross Sea sector, south of New Zealand and Australia, is the least visited of the two, with as few as 500 passengers traveling there a year. A much longer sea journey is required to reach this coast and sea ice conditions are more challenging. Therefore few companies run voyages here.
The South American sector is by far the most visited, and where the majority of tourist dive activities take place. South of Argentina and Chile, this sector encompasses the Antarctic Peninsula, South Shetland, and South Sandwich Islands.
Antarctic tourism is ever evolving, and travelers now have a wide variety of means to get to the continent, as well as options of what to do there, choosing from scenic overflights, inland expeditions, or travel by ship. Over 95% of all tourist travel to Antarctica is by sea, and all diving trips use this mode of transportation. Voyages to the Antarctic Peninsula generally take 10–21 days, and the longer voyages may also include South Georgia and the Falkland Islands. The two main ports of departure are Ushuaia in Argentina and Punta Arenas in Chile, although trips may also leave from Stanley, Falkland Islands.
With over 80 operators and 42 ships to choose from, deciding which company to travel with can be a mind-boggling experience. The majority of these companies are members of the International Association of Antarctic Tour Operators (IAATO). IAATO is a member organization founded in 1991 to advocate, promote, and practice safe and environmentally responsible private-sector travel to the Antarctic. Beginning as a assembly of 7 companies, IAATO now has 69 members encompassing ship-operators, land-based operators, ship agents, travel agents, one governmental office, and travel companies that charter planes and ships. Through extensive procedures and guidelines, IAATO has helped to ensure safe environmental practice, appropriate numbers of passengers on shore, site-specific guidelines, and documentation of activities in Antarctica. The member companies have a continued commitment to education through exploration of Antarctica, and recognize the potential environmental impacts that the increasing numbers of tourists to Antarctica can have. Each have endeavored to set the highest possible industry standards. I recommend researching anyone who is not an IAATO member diligently, but ultimately the company and ship you choose largely depends on what kind of activities they offer, the level of service and comfort you are looking for, as well as personal preference.
Ships sailing to Antarctica are split into four categories:
LARGE CRUISE SHIPS (SIGHTSEEING ONLY)
The largest ships, carrying up to 2,000 passengers, merely cruise to Antarctica, spending one or two days sailing through some of the more scenic areas before heading north again, usually to continue along the coast of South America. These ships make no landings, and offer the more traditional cruise ship experience, with food available around-the-clock, casinos, and shows. There are, however, usually one or two guest lectures who travel on these ships to talk about different aspects of Antarctica.
SMALL CRUISE SHIPS
This category encompasses smaller vessels that have a limit of 500 passengers. Three or four landings are usually made at specific sites during a voyage, but since a maximum of 100 passengers is allowed onshore at any given time, each group is only able to spend a short period ashore during each landing.
EXPEDITION SHIPS
Small vessels carrying fewer than 200 passengers are known as expedition ships. Their small size allows their itinerary to be more flexible, making many landings throughout the trip, sometimes as many as 3 a day. As with all ships in the Antarctic, only 100 passengers are allowed ashore at one time, but even with 200 people aboard, there is plenty of time to explore and enjoy Antarctica. These are the only ships to offer diving to their passengers.
Voyages to the Antarctic Peninsula usually last between 8 and 13 days, with 3–10 days actually spent around the peninsula. Two days down and two days back will be spent in the Drake Passage. This crossing is dreaded by many people, as they may have heard stories of tumultuous seas. Often these accounts are exaggerated, but nevertheless this body of water can certainly cause even the largest ship to move side to side and up and down, so be prepared. All ships will try and make the crossing as smooth as possible, but if you are prone to sea-sickness be sure to bring whatever medication works best for you to avoid being ill.
Although expeditionary in name and nature, these ships tend to offer many comforts, such as á la carte meals, cabin service, and naturalist 'expedition staff' who are your guides during landings, and are always on hand to answer questions. Inflatable boats called Zodiacs are the main mode of transportation off the vessel, although a special circumstance may allow the ship to drop the gangway and let passengers walk out onto steady sea ice.
Most expedition ship operators offering a dive program do so in conjunction with a program for non-divers. Generally there are only 8 to 12 divers with 1 or 2 dive masters onboard, so activities are arranged with the land-oriented passengers in mind. On a journey like this, divers usually have the opportunity to dive once a day during the voyage, allowing them to experience the best of the underwater world as well terrestrial Antarctica.
YACHTS
The last option, and one commonly catering to divers, is a sailing yacht carrying between 8 and 40 passengers. In many cases, especially with the smaller vessel (8–12 people), an entire voyage may be dedicated to diving, but on occasion divers may be on board with land-oriented tourists. Because these trips are in small vessels, jointly wind and motor powered, the trips are longer, lasting between 21 and 37 days. Often a passenger will be part of the working crew, learning how to sail, taking turns cooking, and doing various other jobs around the boat. The number of dives offered will depend on weather and ice conditions.
Additionally, there are also private yachts for charter, usually taking a maximum of 12 passengers. This will probably be your most expensive option, but chartering a whole boat, particularly if with a group of divers, will give you more flexibility in your timings and choice of destinations.
For both of the sailing options, it is most important that you have a good skipper, experienced in Antarctic waters, so plan carefully and look for recommendation from others. The smaller and private yachts are often booked far in advance, and many are not available through traditional travel agents.
Choosing your vessel
The type of vessel you choose to travel on depends on your time constraints, budget, personal preferences, and destination. Prices for expeditions to Antarctica are variable between companies and ships. Divers have the choice of only a few of these companies, but the price is usually between $8,000–$25,000 USD, excluding air fare to the embarkation port, and usually an additional fee for diving, which includes the use of tanks and weights.
Every expedition ship is different and offers varying amenities. Some ships are quite luxurious with spa facilities and fine cuisine, while others are more basic. Whatever type you choose there are a few important things to look for when evaluating a dive operator:
• First impressions matter. When first contacting the company, do they seem well organized and professional?
• Experience counts. Has the company been running dive operations for a number of years, or is it a new venture?
• What type of ship or yacht do they use? Has it visited Antarctica regularly in the past?
• How many Zodiacs do they have? It is best to have one for every 10–12 passengers.
• How many divers do they allow to be on the trip, and what is the ratio between divers and divemasters?
• Are the divemasters experienced in Antarctic waters?
• How many dives will be offered during a trip?
• What type of emergency protocols do they have?
(Continues...)
Excerpted from The Antarctic Dive Guide by Lisa Eareckson Kelley. Copyright © 2015 Lisa Eareckson Kelley. Excerpted by permission of PRINCETON UNIVERSITY PRESS.
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