Table of Contents
Foreword ix
Preface xii
About the Online Resources xvi
Chapter 1 A Framework for Considering the Special Needs of Multilingual Learners 1
Key Concepts 1
Reasons for the Misidentification of Special Needs 2
Assessment Practices 2
Prevalence of a Medical Model 6
Availability of Categorical Funding 7
Developing a Multi-Tiered System of Supports 8
The Need to Provide Relevant Services in a Timely Manner 11
Some Myths Regarding Multilingual Learners and Special Education 12
The Continuum of Services Framework 13
A Collaborative Model 14
Look Critically at the Learning Environment 16
Gather Information 17
Describe before Diagnosing 19
Provide Support: A Continuum of Services 20
Questions for Reflection and Action 22
Chapter 2 A Collaborative Model of Information Gathering and Service Provision 23
Key Concepts 23
Getting a Head Start 24
Challenges to This Continuum of Services Framework 27
Shifting Practices 27
Regulatory and Fiscal Constraints 30
The Challenge of Inertial Concepts 32
Responsibilities of MTSS Teams 34
Examine the Learning Environment 35
Gather Information 35
Interpret Information 37
Suggest Learning Support Strategies 37
Monitor Progress 38
Continue Supporting Students with Ongoing Challenges 38
Makeup of MTSS Teams 39
English as a Second Language/Bilingual Specialists 40
Special Education Specialists 41
Other Professionals 41
Building Professional Bridges across Specializations 42
Characteristics of an Effective MTSS Team 43
Clear and Congruent Principles 43
A Shared Language 44
Loosening Disciplinary Boundaries 45
Respectful Questioning 46
Effective Interpersonal and Communication Skills 47
How to Form Effective MTSS Teams 47
What MTSS Teams Can Accomplish 49
Professional Reflection 49
Capacity Building 50
Redefining Roles 50
The Big Picture 51
Catalysts for Change 51
An Innovative Approach 51
Questions for Reflection and Action 52
Chapter 3 The Learning Environment Created for Multilingual Learners 53
Key Concepts 53
Key Factors in the Learning Environment 54
Teachers 54
Resources Available 59
Design of the Instructional Program 62
Range of Services Offered 64
Role of the Home Language 64
Role of the Home Culture 66
Characteristics of Instruction 68
Characteristics of Assessment 69
Evaluating the Adequacy of the Learning Environment 70
Enhancing the Learning Environment 70
Reflecting on the Six Integral Factors 72
Questions for Reflection and Action 72
Chapter 4 Personal and Family Factors 73
Key Concepts 73
Key Factors in the Student's Personal and Family Background 74
Socioeconomic Status 74
Family Dynamics 75
Expectations 78
Student Interests 79
Student Motivation 79
Experiential Background 81
Parental and Family Engagement 82
Information Gathering 83
Systemic Support Strategies 86
Specific Support Strategies 86
Questions for Reflection and Action 88
Chapter 5 Physical and Psychological Factors 89
Key Concepts 89
Key Physical and Psychological Factors 90
Disease or Medical Condition 90
Impaired Vision or Hearing 91
Malnutrition and Chronic Hunger 93
Effects of Recent Trauma 93
Fear 95
Current Psychological Stress 96
Social and Emotional Development 97
Feelings of Belonging to the School and Wider Community 98
Information Gathering 98
Systemic Support Strategies 100
Specific Support Strategies 102
Questions for Reflection and Action 102
Chapter 6 Previous Schooling Factors 103
Key Concepts 103
Key Factors in Previous Schooling 104
Amount of Formal Schooling in the Home Language 105
Quality of Formal Schooling in the Home Language 109
Amount of Formal ESL Instruction 111
Quality of Formal ESL Instruction 111
Congruence of Educational Approaches 112
Information Gathering and Evaluating the Adequacy of Previous Schooling 113
Systemic Support Strategies 114
Specific Support Strategies 115
Questions for Reflection and Action 116
Chapter 7 Oral Language and Literacy Development 117
Key Concepts 117
Key Factors in Oral Language Development 118
Home Language Acquisition 118
Acquisition of a Second or Additional Language 119
Evidence of Instruction in Oral Academic Language 124
Reinforcing Academic Language at Home 126
Key Factors in Literacy Development 127
Literacy Development in the Home Language and English 128
Literacy Development in Social and Academic Settings 132
Evidence of Appropriate Literacy Instruction in the Home Language and English 134
Literacy in the Home and Community 135
Understanding the Relationship between Students' Home Language and English 136
Language Use Patterns 138
Information Gathering 140
What to Assess in Oral Language and Literacy 141
How to Assess Oral Language and Literacy 142
Comparisons with Peers 145
Systemic Learning Support Strategies 146
Specific Learning Support Strategies 147
Questions for Reflection and Action 147
Chapter 8 Academic Performance 149
Key Concepts 149
Key Factors in Academic Performance 149
Taking into Account All Content Areas 150
Language Proficiency and Knowledge of Concepts 151
Gathering Information about Academic Performance 153
Standardized Norm-Referenced Testing and Performance Assessment 153
Obtaining Information in Students' Home Language and English 155
Comparisons with Like Peers 155
Current and Past Academic Performance Data 158
Evidence of Effective Instruction 159
Home Factors 160
Systemic and Specific Learning Support Strategies 162
Coordination 162
Time and Resources 162
Coherent Learning 162
Common Framework 164
Wide Scope 166
Questions for Reflection and Action 169
Chapter 9 Cross-Cultural Factors 170
Key Concepts 170
Key Characteristics of Culture 171
What Is Culture? 171
The Multiple Facets of Culture 175
Culture as a Dynamic Process 175
Adapting to a New Culture 176
The Role of Culture in Learning 179
Information Gathering and Evaluating Cultural Difference Factors 179
Assessing Educators' Attitudes toward Cultural Reciprocity 182
Systemic Support Strategies 182
Capitalizing on Diversity 183
Contextualizing Instruction 183
Building Staff Knowledge and Understanding 183
Home-School Communication 184
Specific Support Strategies 185
Questions for Reflection and Action 186
Chapter 10 Describing before Identifying: When Specific Challenges Persist 188
Key Concepts 188
The Importance of Describing before Identifying 189
Similarity of Surface Behaviors 191
The Tendency to Choose Disability Explanations 192
The Nature of Second Language Acquisition 192
The Process of Data Collection and Explanation 194
Step 1: Producing an Inventory of Specific Observable Behaviors 195
Step 2: Explaining the Observed Behaviors 199
Reframing the Issue: Describe, Explain, and Support 205
Questions for Reflection and Action 206
Chapter 11 Delivering a Continuum of Services 207
Key Concepts 207
Providing Support in a Timely Manner 208
Benefits of RtI/MTSS for Multilingual Learners 209
A Solution-Seeking Approach Based on Meaning 211
Seeking Language Educators' Expertise to Generate Interventions 212
Seeking Special Educators' Expertise to Generate Interventions 215
A Forum for Crafting and Evaluating Interventions 218
Key Principles for Crafting and Evaluating Interventions 219
Validating Difficulties and Intervening across Contexts 225
An Example of Validating the Source of Difficulties 226
Home Language and Culture as Resources 227
Bilingualism and Special Education Needs 228
Monolingual Educators in Multilingual Settings 229
A Sample Process 229
Questions for Reflection and Action 231
Chapter 12 Putting It All Together 232
Key Concepts 232
Identification of Multilingual Learners Who Experience Significant Challenges 233
Checking the Proportion of Multilingual Learners in Special Education 233
Investigating Misidentification 234
Anticipating and Addressing Predictable Challenges 237
Identifying Exceptionalities in Diverse Settings 238
Rejecting Common Myths 239
Creating a Supportive and Enriching Learning Environment 239
Teachers and Resources 240
Program and Instructional Issues 241
Adopting a Culturally and Linguistically Appropriate Approach 241
Monitoring the Effectiveness of Learning Support Strategies and Interventions 242
Building Capacity to Anticipate New Challenges 245
Creating a Context for Assessment 245
Benefits for All Learners 247
Advocating to Change the System 247
Questions for Reflection and Action 248
Glossary 249
References 254
Index 283