Table of Contents
Contents Preface.......................................................................................................................................................................................... xi
Acknowledgment........................................................................................................................................................................xiii
Author.......................................................................................................................................................................................... xv
Chapter 1 Management of Soilborne Microbial Plant Pathogens – Exclusion and Prevention Strategies............................... 1
1.1 Exclusion of Microbial Plant Pathogens........................................................................................................ 1
1.1.1 Use of Disease-Free Seeds and Propagules..................................................................................... 1
1.1.2 Prevention of Pathogen Entry through Plant Quarantines............................................................... 2
1.1.3 Impact of Introduced Microbial Plant Pathogens............................................................................ 3
1.1.3.1 Potato Late Blight Disease............................................................................................... 3
1.1.3.2 Banana Fusarium Wilt Disease........................................................................................ 3
1.1.3.3 Potato Virus Diseases....................................................................................................... 4
1.1.4 Removal of Infected Plant Tissues................................................................................................... 4
1.2 Soil Health Management............................................................................................................................... 4
1.2.1 Cultural Practices............................................................................................................................. 5
1.2.1.1 Disposal of Infected Plants and Residues......................................................................... 5
1.2.1.2 Tillage Practices............................................................................................................... 5
1.2.1.3 Propagation Practices....................................................................................................... 7
1.2.1.4 Date of Planting/Sowing and Planting Density................................................................ 8
1.2.1.5 Canopy Management Practices........................................................................................ 9
1.2.1.6 Irrigation Practices......................................................................................................... 10
1.2.1.7 Crop Nutrition................................................................................................................. 12
1.2.1.8 Effects of Other Crops.................................................................................................... 21
1.3 Physical Techniques.................................................................................................................................... 28
1.3.1 Heat Treatments............................................................................................................................. 28
1.3.2 Radiation Treatments..................................................................................................................... 31
1.4 Chemical Techniques.................................................................................................................................. 31
1.4.1 Treatment of Irrigation Water........................................................................................................ 31
1.4.2 Treatment of Soil............................................................................................................................ 32
1.4.3 Treatment of Tools.......................................................................................................................... 32
References.............................................................................................................................................................. 32
Chapter 2 Management of Soilborne Microbial Plant Pathogens: Improvement of Host Plant Resistance........................... 39
2.1 Types of Disease Resistance........................................................................................................................ 39
2.1.1 Vertical Resistance......................................................................................................................... 39
2.1.2 Horizontal Resistance.................................................................................................................... 40
2.2 Host Plant Resistance to Soilborne Fungal Pathogens................................................................................ 41
2.2.1 Genetic Basis of Disease Resistance.............................................................................................. 41
2.2.1.1 Screening for Disease Resistance................................................................................... 41
2.2.2 Mechanisms of Resistance to Fungal Pathogens........................................................................... 73
2.2.2.1 Gene-for-Gene Interactions in Plant Host–Pathogen Systems....................................... 75
2.2.2.2 Nonhost Resistance to Fungal Pathogens....................................................................... 80
2.2.2.3 Enhancement of Resistance through Rootstocks............................................................ 81
2.2.2.4 Plant Defense Mechanisms............................................................................................. 82
2.3 Host Plant Resistance to Soilborne Bacterial Pathogens............................................................................. 95
2.3.1 Genetic Basis of Resistance to Bacterial Pathogens...................................................................... 95
2.3.1.1 Screening for Resistance to Bacterial Pathogens........................................................... 95
2.3.2 Mechanisms of Resistance to Bacterial Pathogens........................................................................ 99
2.4 Host Plant Resistance to Soilborne Viral Pathogens................................................................................. 103
2.4.1 Genetic Basis of Resistance to Viruses........................................................................................ 104
2.4.2 Mechanisms of Resistance to Soilborne Viruses......................................................................... 109
2.5 Transgenic Resistance to Soilborne Microbial Pathogens.........................................................................110
2.5.1 Transgenic Resistance to Fungal Pathogens.................................................................................111
2.5.1.1 Employing Genes from Wild Relatives for Transformation..........................................111
2.5.1.2 Targeting Structural Components of Fungal Pathogens................................................112
2.5.1.3 Employing Genes Expressing Antifungal Proteins.......................................................114
2.5.1.4 Use of Genes for Modifying Host Plant Metabolism....................................................115
2.5.2 Transgenic Resistance to Bacterial Pathogens..............................................................................116
2.5.2.1 Transfer of Genes from Nonhost Plants........................................................................116
2.5.2.2 Use of Genes Encoding Antibacterial Proteins of Diverse Origin................................116
2.5.3 Transgenic Resistance to Viral Pathogens....................................................................................117
2.5.3.1 Pathogen-Derived Resistance........................................................................................117
References.............................................................................................................................................................119
Chapter 3 Management of Soilborne Microbial Plan Pathogens: Biological Management of Crop Diseases..................... 135
3.1 Assessment of Biological Control Potential of Biotic Agents................................................................... 135
3.1.1 Fungal Biological Control Agents................................................................................................ 135
3.1.1.1 Assessment of Biocontrol Potential of Fungal Isolates................................................ 136
3.1.2 Mycorrhizal Biological Control Agents....................................................................................... 145
3.1.2.1 Assessment of Biological Control Potential................................................................. 146
3.1.3 Bacterial Biological Control Agents............................................................................................ 149
3.1.3.1 Assessment of Biological Control Potential of Bacterial Isolates................................ 150
3.1.4 Viral Biological Control Agents................................................................................................... 159
3.1.4.1 Viruses Infecting Fungal Pathogens............................................................................. 159
3.1.4.2 Viruses Infecting Bacterial Pathogens......................................................................... 160
3.1.4.3 Cross-Protection with Mild Strains of Plant Viruses................................................... 162
3.1.5 Mechanisms of Action of Biotic Biocontrol Agents.................................................................... 162
3.1.5.1 Fungal Biological Control Agents................................................................................ 162
3.1.5.2 Bacterial Biological Control Agents..............................................................................173
3.1.6 Formulations of Biological Products............................................................................................ 183
3.1.6.1 Development of Formulations...................................................................................... 183
3.2 Assessment of Biocontrol Potential of Abiotic Agents............................................................................. 187
3.2.1 Natural Products of Plant and Animal Origin............................................................................. 187
3.2.1.1 Effects of Composts...................................................................................................... 187
3.2.1.2 Effects of Plant Residues...............................................................................................191
3.2.1.3 Effects of Plant Products.............................................................................................. 193
3.2.1.4 Effects of Animal Products.......................................................................................... 194
3.2.2 Synthetic Organic Compounds.................................................................................................... 196
3.2.2.1 Salicylic Acid................................................................................................................ 196
3.2.2.2 Benzothiadiazole.......................................................................................................... 197
3.2.2.3 s-Aminobutyric Acid.................................................................................................... 198
3.2.2.4 Glycerol......................................................................................................................... 199
3.2.2.5 Ethanol.......................................................................................................................... 199
3.2.3 Inorganic Chemicals.................................................................................................................... 199
References............................................................................................................................................................ 201
Chapter 4 Management of Soilborne Microbial Plant Pathogens: Chemical Application....................................................217
4.1 Assessment of Activity of Chemicals Against Fungal Pathogens..............................................................217
4.1.1 Laboratory Tests............................................................................................................................218
4.1.1.1 Agar-Amended Assay....................................................................................................218
4.1.1.2 Microbioassay............................................................................................................... 221
4.1.1.3 Colorimetric Bioassay................................................................................................... 221
4.1.1.4 Nanoparticles Assay..................................................................................................... 221
4.1.2 Methods of Application of Chemicals......................................................................................... 222
4.1.2.1 Treatment of Seeds/Propagules.................................................................................... 222
4.1.2.2 Treatment of Aerial Plant Organs................................................................................. 224
4.1.2.3 Pre-Plant Dip Treatment of Crowns/Roots................................................................... 227
4.1.2.4 Treatment of Soil.......................................................................................................... 227
4.1.2.5 Fungicide Application Based on Weather-Based Advisories....................................... 232
4.1.2.6 Dissipation Dynamics of Fungicides............................................................................ 232
4.1.3 Resistance of Fungal Pathogens to Fungicides............................................................................ 234
4.1.3.1 In Vitro Assessment of Fungicide Resistance.............................................................. 235
4.1.3.2 Greenhouse Assessment of Fungicide Resistance in Pathogens..................................240
4.1.3.3 Field Assessment of Fungicide Resistance in Pathogens..............................................240
4.1.3.4 Distribution of Pathogen Isolates Resistant to Fungicides........................................... 241
4.1.3.5 Fungicide Resistance Induced by Mutation in Fungal Pathogens................................ 241
4.1.3.6 Molecular Characterization and Mechanisms of Fungicide Resistance...................... 243
4.1.3.7 Inheritance of Resistance to Fungicides.......................................................................244
4.1.4 Mechanisms of Action of Fungicides........................................................................................... 245
4.1.5 Effects of Chemical Application on Nontarget Organisms......................................................... 249
4.2 Assessment of Activities of Chemicals Against Bacterial Pathogens....................................................... 249
4.2.1 Use of Disinfectants..................................................................................................................... 249
4.2.2 Use of Bactericides....................................................................................................................... 250
References............................................................................................................................................................ 250
Chapter 5 Management of Soilborne Microbial Plant Pathogens: Development of Integrated
Disease Management Systems............................................................................................................................. 257
5.1 Components of Integrated Disease Management Systems........................................................................ 257
5.2 Management of Diseases of Agricultural Crops....................................................................................... 258
5.2.1 Wheat Diseases............................................................................................................................ 258
5.2.1.1 Wheat-Take-All Disease............................................................................................... 258
5.2.1.2 Rhizoctonia Bare Patch Disease................................................................................... 259
5.2.2 Rice Sheath Blight Disease.......................................................................................................... 259
5.2.3 Cotton Diseases............................................................................................................................ 260
5.2.3.1 Verticillium Wilt Disease............................................................................................. 260
5.2.3.2 Seedling Diseases......................................................................................................... 260
5.2.3.3 Root Rot Disease.......................................................................................................... 261
5.2.4 Soybean Diseases......................................................................................................................... 261
5.2.4.1 Damping-Off/Root Rot Disease................................................................................... 261
5.2.4.2 Sclerotinia Stem Rot Disease........................................................................................ 261
5.2.5 Chickpea Diseases........................................................................................................................ 261
5.2.5.1 Fusarium Wilt Disease................................................................................................. 261
5.2.5.2 Ascochyta Blight Disease............................................................................................. 262
5.2.5.3 Damping-Off Disease................................................................................................... 262
5.2.6 Peanut Diseases............................................................................................................................ 262
5.2.6.1 Root Rot Disease.......................................................................................................... 262
5.2.6.2 Sclerotinia Stem Blight Disease................................................................................... 263
5.2.6.3 Stem Rot Disease.......................................................................................................... 263
5.2.6.4 Collar Rot Disease........................................................................................................ 264
5.2.7 Canola Diseases........................................................................................................................... 264
5.2.7.1 Sclerotinia Stem Rot Disease........................................................................................ 264
5.2.7.2 Rhizoctonia Root Rot Disease...................................................................................... 264
5.2.7.3 Blackleg Disease........................................................................................................... 264
5.2.7.4 Clubroot disease........................................................................................................... 264
5.3 Management of Diseases of Horticultural Crops...................................................................................... 265
5.3.1 Tomato Diseases........................................................................................................................... 265
5.3.1.1 Damping-Off Diseases................................................................................................. 265
5.3.1.2 Fusarium Wilt Disease................................................................................................. 265
5.3.1.3 Late Blight Disease....................................................................................................... 266
5.3.1.4 Bacterial Wilt Disease.................................................................................................. 266
5.3.2 Potato Diseases............................................................................................................................. 267
5.3.2.1 Late Blight and Tuber Blight Disease........................................................................... 267
5.3.2.2 Verticillium Wilt Disease............................................................................................. 267
5.3.2.3 Stem Canker and Black Scurf Disease......................................................................... 267
5.3.2.4 Scab Diseases............................................................................................................... 268
5.3.2.5 Blackleg and Soft Rot Disease...................................................................................... 268
5.3.3 Pepper Diseases............................................................................................................................ 268
5.3.3.1 Verticillium Wilt Disease............................................................................................. 268
5.3.3.2 Crown and Root Rot Disease........................................................................................ 268
5.3.4 Cucurbit Fusarium Wilt Disease.................................................................................................. 268
5.3.5 Allium White Rot Disease........................................................................................................... 269
5.3.6 Sugar Beet Root and Crown Rot Disease..................................................................................... 269
5.3.7 Cabbage Diseases......................................................................................................................... 269
5.3.7.1 Yellows Disease............................................................................................................ 269
5.3.7.2 Damping-Off Disease................................................................................................... 270
5.3.7.3 Clubroot Disease........................................................................................................... 270
5.3.8 Lettuce Diseases........................................................................................................................... 270
5.3.8.1 Sclerotinia Rot Disease................................................................................................. 270
5.2.8.2 Verticillium Wilt Disease............................................................................................. 270
5.3.9 Banana Panama (Fusarium) Wilt Disease................................................................................... 270
5.3.10 Strawberry Diseases..................................................................................................................... 271
5.3.11 Tobacco Diseases......................................................................................................................... 272
5.3.11.1 Black Rot Disease......................................................................................................... 272
5.3.11.2 Black Shank Disease.................................................................................................... 272
References............................................................................................................................................................ 272
Index.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 277