| Foreword | vii |
| Preface | xi |
| Acknowledgements | xvii |
Part I | Security, Anxiety, and Distress | |
1 | Prototypes of Human Sorrow | 3 |
| Responses of young children to separation from mother | 3 |
| Conditions leading to intense responses | 6 |
| Conditions mitigating the intensity of responses | 16 |
| Presence or absence of mother figure: a key variable | 22 |
2 | The Place of Separation and Loss in Psychopathology | 25 |
| Problem and perspective | 25 |
| Separation anxiety and other forms of anxiety | 30 |
| A challenge for theory | 30 |
3 | Behaviour with and without Mother: Humans | 33 |
| Naturalistic observations | 33 |
| Experimental Studies | 39 |
| Ontogeny of responses to separation | 52 |
4 | Behaviour with and without Mother: Non-human Primates | 57 |
| Naturalistic observations | 57 |
| Early experimental studies | 60 |
| Further studies by Hinde and Spencer-Booth | 69 |
Part II | An Ethological Approach to Human Fear | |
5 | Basic Postulates in Theories of Anxiety and Fear | 77 |
| Anxiety allied to fear | 77 |
| Models of motivation and their effects on theory | 79 |
| Puzzling phobia or natural fear | 83 |
6 | Forms of Behaviour Indicative of Fear | 87 |
| An empirical approach | 87 |
| Withdrawal behaviour and attachment behaviour | 89 |
| Feeling afraid and its variants: feeling alarmed and feeling anxious | 92 |
7 | Situations that Arouse Fear in Humans | 96 |
| A difficult field of study | 96 |
| Fear-arousing situations: the first year | 99 |
| Fear-arousing situations: the second and later years | 105 |
| Compound situations | 118 |
| Fear behaviour and the development of attachment | 119 |
8 | Situations that Arouse Fear in Animals | 124 |
| Natural clues to potential danger | 124 |
| Fear behaviour of non-human primates | 127 |
| Compound situations | 134 |
| Fear, attack, and exploration | 136 |
9 | Natural Clues to Danger and Safety | 138 |
| Better safe than sorry | 138 |
| Potential danger of being alone | 142 |
| Potential safety of familiar companions and environment | 146 |
| Maintaining a stable relationship with the familiar environment: a form of homeostasis | 148 |
10 | Natural Clues, Cultural Clues, and the Assessment of Danger | 151 |
| Clues of three kinds | 151 |
| Real danger: difficulties of assessment | 153 |
| 'Imaginary' dangers | 156 |
| Cultural clues learnt from others | 158 |
| Continuing role of the natural clues | 161 |
| Behaviour in disaster | 166 |
11 | Rationalization, Misattribution, and Projection | 169 |
| Difficulties in identifying situations that arouse fear | 169 |
| Misattribution and the role of projection | 172 |
| The case of Schreber: a re-examination | 174 |
12 | Fear of Separation | 178 |
| Hypotheses regarding its development | 178 |
| Need for two terminologies | 182 |
Part III | Individual Differences in Susceptibility to Fear: Anxious Attachment | |
13 | Some Variables responsible for Individual Differences | 187 |
| Constitutional variables | 187 |
| Experiences and processes that reduce susceptibility to fear | 191 |
| Experiences and processes that increase susceptibility to fear | 196 |
14 | Susceptibility to Fear and the Availability of Attachment Figures | 201 |
| Forecasting the availability of an attachment figure | 201 |
| Working models of attachment figures and of self | 203 |
| The role of experience in determining working models | 207 |
| A note on use of the terms 'mature' and 'immature' | 209 |
15 | Anxious Attachment and Some Conditions that Promote it | 211 |
| 'Overdependency' or anxious attachment | 211 |
| Anxious attachment of children reared without a permanent mother figure | 215 |
| Anxious attachment after a period of separation or of daily substitute care | 220 |
| Anxious attachment following threats of abandonment or suicide | 226 |
16 | 'Overdependency' and the Theory of Spoiling | 237 |
| Some contrasting theories | 237 |
| Studies of 'overdependency' and its antecedents | 240 |
17 | Anger, Anxiety, and Attachment | 245 |
| Anger: a response to separation | 245 |
| Anger: functional and dysfunctional | 246 |
| Anger, ambivalence, and anxiety | 253 |
18 | Anxious Attachment and the 'Phobias' of Childhood | 258 |
| Phobia, pseudophobia, and anxiety state | 258 |
| 'School phobia' or school refusal | 261 |
| Two classical cases of childhood phobia: a reappraisal | 283 |
| Animal phobias in childhood | 289 |
19 | Anxious Attachment and 'Agoraphobia' | 292 |
| Symptomatology and theories of 'agoraphobia' | 292 |
| Pathogenic patterns of family interaction | 299 |
| 'Agoraphobia', bereavement, and depression | 309 |
| A note on response to treatment | 310 |
20 | Omission, Suppression, and Falsification of Family Context | 313 |
21 | Secure Attachment and the Growth of Self-reliance | 322 |
| Personality development and family experience | 322 |
| Studies of adolescents and young adults | 328 |
| Studies of young children | 350 |
| Self-reliance and reliance on others | 359 |
22 | Pathways for the Growth of Personality | 363 |
| The nature of individual variation: alternative models | 363 |
| Developmental pathways and homeorhesis | 366 |
| One person's pathway: some determinants | 369 |
| Appendices | |
I | Separation Anxiety: Review of Literature | 375 |
II | Psychoanalysis and Evolution Theory | 399 |
III | Problems of Terminology | 404 |
| Additional Notes | 409 |
| References | 415 |
| Additional References | 436 |
| Index | 439 |