Table of Contents
Preface v
1 Basics on rubber 1
1.1 The rubber history 1
1.1.1 Natural rubber 2
1.1.2 Synthetic rubber 4
1.2 Elastomers 6
1.3 Rubber applications 9
1.4 Thermodynamics of elasticity 10
1.4.1 Theoretical approach 12
1.4.2 Statistical mechanical theories of rubber elasticity 14
References 16
2 Compounding 17
2.1 Introduction 17
2.2 Basics on rubber compounding 17
2.3 Main ingredients in a rubber compound 19
2.3.1 Elastomer 19
2.3.2 Fillers 19
2.3.3 Curatives (vulcanising agents) 20
2.3.4 Accelerators 20
2.3.5 Activators 20
2.3.6 Retarders or inhibitors 20
2.3.7 Plasticisers 20
2.3.8 Pre-dispersed ingredients 21
2.3.9 Processing aids 21
2.3.10 Flame retardants 21
2.3.11 Odorants and deodorants 21
2.3.12 Peptisers 21
2.3.13 Pigments 22
2.3.14 Anti-degradants 22
2.3.15 Tackifiers 22
2.3.16 Blowing agents 22
2.4 The compounding process 23
2.5 Compounding tools 26
References 29
3 Vulcanisation 31
3.1 The vulcanisation process 31
3.2 Influence of cross-link type and density on the rubber behaviour 32
3.2.1 Average molecular weight 32
3.2.2 Type and degree of cross-linking 33
3.2.3 Cross-link density 34
3.3 Vulcanising agents 36
3.4 Accelerators 37
3.4.1 Accelerators selection in rubber compounding 41
3.5 Activators 44
3.6 Scorch retarders 44
3.7 Accelerated sulphur vulcanisation 45
3.8 Peroxide curing 47
3.9 Others vulcanisation systems 49
References 50
4 Elastomers 51
4.1 Elastomer overview 51
4.1.1 Thermoset elastomers 54
4.1.2 Thermoplastic elastomers 60
4.2 Silicone 61
4.2.1 From sand to silicones 64
4.2.2 Silicone elastomers 66
4.2.3 Physical-chemical properties of silicone 68
4.2.4 Performances and applications 69
4.3 Acrytonitrile/butadiene rubber 70
4.3.1 Chemistry and manufacturing process 71
4.4 Hydrogenated nitrile butadiene rubber 73
4.5 Fluoroelastomers (FKM) 74
4.5.1 Fluoroelastomer classification 75
4.5.2 Curing systems for fluoroelastomer 76
4.5.3 FFKM 78
4.6 Ethylene-propylene rubber 78
4.7 Polybutadiene (BR) 80
4.8 Styrene-butadiene rubber 81
4.9 NR and IR polyisoprene 83
4.9.1 Natural rubber 83
4.9.2 Polyisoprene (IR) 85
4.10 Polychloroprene (neoprene) 86
4.11 Butyl rubber (IIR) 88
4.11.1 Halobutyl rubber 89
References 90
5 Thermoplastic elastomers 91
5.1 Introduction 91
5.2 Historical background 93
5.3 Thermoplastic elastomers: key characteristics 95
5.4 Synthesis of block copolymers 98
5.5 Property-structure relationships 100
5.6 Dynamic vulcanisation 103
5.7 Styrenic block copolymers 105
5.8 Polyolefin blends 106
5.9 Thermoplastic elastomers based on polyamide 107
5.10 Thermoplastic polyether ester elastomers 108
5.11 Thermoplastic polyurethane 108
References 110
6 Additives and fillers 113
6.1 Introduction 113
6.2 Filters 113
6.2.1 Filler characteristics 115
6.2.2 Particle-elastomeric matrix compatibility 118
6.3 Carbon black 120
6.3.1 Nomenclature 122
6.3.2 Basic chemistry and main characteristics of carbon black 123
6.3.3 Compounding with CB 126
6.4 Non-black fillers 128
6.5 Amorphous precipitated silica 129
6.6 Anti-degradants 131
6.6.1 Anti-oxidants 132
6.6.2 Anti-ozonants 133
6.7 Softeners and lubricants 134
References 135
7 Rubber bonding 137
7.1 Introduction 137
7.2 Basics of rubber bonding 137
7.3 Selecting the bonding agents 139
7.4 The bonding process 141
7.4.1 Substrate preparation 141
7.4.2 Application of the bonding system 143
7.4.3 Rubber moulding and finishing 144
General references 145
8 Manufacturing and transformation technologies 147
8.1 Designing rubber components 147
8.1.1 Tools helping to design with rubber 148
8.1.2 Rubber over-moulding 149
8.2 Rubber selection 150
8.3 Rubber moulding considerations 152
8.4 Moulding problems 154
8.4.1 Scorch 155
8.4.2 Backrinding 155
8.4.3 Entrapped air 155
8.5 Post-moulding operations 156
8.6 Injection moulding 157
8.7 Compression moulding 158
8.8 Transfer moulding 159
8.9 Rubber extrusion 160
8.10 Calendering 162
8.11 Tyre manufacture 162
General references 164
9 Rubber materials and products testing 165
9.1 Introduction 165
9.2 Viscosity 165
9.3 Cure characteristics 165
9.3.1 Oscillating disc rheometer 167
9.3.2 Cure curve 168
9.3.3 Moving die rheometer 170
9.4 Hardness 172
9.5 Tensile strength and elongation 172
9.6 Tear strength 173
9.7 Compression set 173
9.8 Abrasion test 174
9.9 Resistance to fluids 175
9.10 Low-temperature properties 175
9.11 Resistance to weathering 176
References 176
10 Recycling rubber 177
10.1 Why reclaim or recycle rubber? 177
10.2 Rubber reclaim 179
10.3 Ground rubber In civil engineering applications 180
References 181
Abbreviations 183
Glossary 185
Index 197
