Table of Contents
Preface xv
Chapter 1 Purpose, Policy, Theory, Definitions and Context 1
Purpose 1
The Burden of Government 2
Perspective, Collaboration, Competence 5
Traditional, Nontraditional, Burden 9
Organizational Design 11
Prices, Profits and Nonprofit Motives 12
The Context 13
Dimension of the Problem in the United States 13
Why the Nonprofit Option 16
Toward a Supporting Theory 17
Bibliography 18
Chapter 2 Designing, Empowering and Engaging the Nonprofit to Lessen the Burden of Government 19
The National Trust for Historic Preservation 19
Crafting the Intent to Lessen the Burden of Government 19
Federal and State Designation of an Eligible Burden 21
Classification of Nonprofits as Doers and Facilitators 22
The Planks on Which to Design a Nonprofit to Reduce the Burden of Government 26
Plank 1 Money 28
Plank 2 Marketing and Persuading 32
Plank 3 Membership and Public 32
Plank 4 Management 33
Plank 5 The Mission 35
Plank 6 Collaboration and Cooperation 37
Plank 7 Tax Exemption 37
Plank 8 Powers to Act 38
Plank 9 Accountability 39
Plank 10 Legitimacy 39
Summary and Preview 40
Bibliography 40
Chapter 3 Empowering the Nonprofit to Lessen the Burden of Government 43
The Creation of the Corporation 44
Incorporation: Process, Purpose, Powers 45
The Powers of the Nonprofit Corporation 48
Prohibitions 50
Financial Advantages and Disadvantages of Exemption 53
Some Factors that Threaten the Loss of Tax-Exampt Status Under 501(c)(3) 66
Summary and Preview 68
Bibliography 68
Chapter 4 Nonprofits as Doers in Reducing the Burden of Government 69
The Doers: Distinguishing Examples 71
Categorizing 501(c)(3) Doers 73
Doers Depending Mostly on Business Income 78
Subsidiaries, Affiliates, and Holding Companies as Internal Facilitators 80
Other Categories of Doers 83
A General Comparison of Doers 85
Lessening the Burden of Government: The Benefits and Justification of Tax Exemption 86
Summary and Preview 87
Chapter 5 Nonprofit as Financiers and Facilitators in Reducing the Burden of Government 89
Two Government-Created Examples: To Be Close But Not Controlled 89
The Nonprofit Financers 91
The Rules of Foundation Operation 93
The Key Characteristics of the Facilitator 100
Hybrids: Private Operating Foundations 102
Summary and Preview 104
Chapter 6 Government Created Nonprofits to Lessen the Burden of Government 105
Nonprofits Created by Governments to Lessen Their Own Burdens 106
Qualifications of a Government-Created 501(c)(3) 108
Public Authorities as Government-Created Nonprofits to Relieve Government Burden 110
Ports and Powers 113
Are Authorities Doers or Financers? 123
Summary and Preview 123
Bibliography 124
Chapter 7 Decision-Making and Governance Structure in Lessening the Burden of Government 125
The Board 125
Interlocking Directorates 129
Conflict of Interest, independence, and Board Members 130
Dealing With Possible Conflicts of interest 132
Dealing With Non-Independence 133
Standards at the Root of All Trustee Actions 133
Excessive Economic Transactions and Due Diligence 137
Duty of Organizations to Trustees and Their Rights 138
Liability of Trustees 139
Annual Disclosures of Involvement of Current and Past Trustees and Senior Management 141
Summary and Preview 142
Bibliography 143
Chapter 8 Financing the Burden through Contributions 145
A General Picture of Contributions and the Sector 145
Requirements of a Tax-Deductible Gift 152
Problems of Accepting Gifts Subject to Debt 158
Summary, Responsibility, and Preview 161
Bibliography 161
Chapter 9 Financing the Burden through Business Earnings 163
Business Activity as a Source of Money 163
Definition of Related and Unrelated Nonprofit Businesses 165
Excess Profits: A Distinction Between Related and Unrelated Income 168
Integration of Business Operations Into a Conglomerate Structure 169
The Organization of an Unrelated Business 169
Tax Treatment of Different Types of Business Income 172
Key Points on Entrepreneurial Income in Nonprofits 188
Summary and Preview 189
Chapter 10 Financing the Burden through Debt 191
The Need for a Charter and Other Documentary Powers 191
Terms of Debt 192
Non-Deductibility and Taxability of Interest 194
Debt as Credit Facility 194
Covenants, Default, Bankruptcy 195
Strategies for Treating a Loan Due 195
Borrowing from the Securities Market 196
Borrowing from Nonfinancial Sources 197
Preparing to Borrow 197
Debt Limits and the Nonprofit 198
Subsidized Infrastructure Debt Available to Nonprofits 198
Long-Term Debt for Infrastructure Used by the Nonprofit 199
Long-Term Debt Issued by Nonprofits on Behalf of the Government for Public Purpose Infrastructure Called 63-20 Debt 200
Issuing of Debt (Bonds) by an Authority 202
Debt Through Tax Increment Financing 205
Long-Term Lease Arrangements of Property 206
Summary and Preview 206
Bibliography 206
Chapter 11 Establishing Cash Flows for Sustainability 207
The Trust 208
Endowments: Perpetuating a Gift 209
Specific Long-Term Assets In an Endowment: Trusts 213
Specific Long-Term Assets for Endowments: Life Insurance Policies 216
Gifts of Iras, Gift Annuities, and Other Such Contracts 222
The Power of a Will 223
Summary and Preview 224
Bibliography 224
Chapter 12 Corruption and Control: Protecting the Assets for Lessening the Burden of Government 225
Corruption 225
Types and Effects of Corruption in Nonprofit Organizations 226
Sources and Opportunities for Corruption 228
Managing the Risks of Corruption and Fraud 230
Controls: An Accounting Approach 230
Controls: A Transaction Approach 231
Controls: A Flow Approach 232
Controls: Organizational Lines of Defense 233
A Comprehensive Approach to Corruption 234
The Discovery of Corruption 237
The Protection of Sources and Records 237
Insurance Against Corruption 240
Classification and Treatment of Certain Costs 242
A Tool of Cost Control, Avoidance of Cost Overruns, and Detection of the Risk of Inefficiency or Fraud 246
Summary and Preview 248
Bibliography 248
Chapter 13 Discussion and Dialogue 251
Levels of Lessening the Burden of Government 252
Types of Nonprofits Lessening the Burden of Government 253
The Authority to Perform 254
The Nature of the Promise to Lessen the Burden of Government 255
To Exercise Authority the Nonprofit Needs Powers 255
The Power to Finance and the Motive for Action 256
Governance Structure 256
Accountability and Disclosures 257
Types and Range of Collaboration 258
The Conflict Between Collaboration and Control 258
Sources of Legitimacy 259
Growth and Competition 261
Debt and Off-Balance Sheet Financing 262
Who Subsidizes Whom 264
Tax Exemption as Price and Incentive 264
The Rationale for This Direction 265
Index 269