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| ISBN-13: | 9780520921276 |
|---|---|
| Publisher: | University of California Press |
| Publication date: | 06/05/1998 |
| Sold by: | Barnes & Noble |
| Format: | eBook |
| Pages: | 236 |
| Sales rank: | 893,430 |
| File size: | 19 MB |
| Note: | This product may take a few minutes to download. |
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Method for the One-Keyed Flute
Baroque and Classical
By Janice Dockendorff Boland
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS
Copyright © 1998 The Regents of the University of CaliforniaAll rights reserved.
ISBN: 978-0-520-92127-6
CHAPTER 1
ABOUT THE ONE-KEYED FLUTE
ON THE FLUTE
A Bit of History
The one-keyed flute was developed from the keyless, cylindrical-bored Renaissance flute, possibly by 1660. Its beginnings are sketchy at best. Historians have traditionally credited the Hotteterre and Philidor families at the French court of Louis XIV with the "perfection" of the flute. New evidence has challenged that position (Powell, 1996), but we, as yet, have nothing to replace it. Regardless, early one-keyed flutes had three sections: a more-or-less cylindrical head joint, a conical middle joint with six tone holes, and a foot joint with one tone hole covered by a key. Later, probably by about 1720, makers divided the middle section into two parts.
The one-keyed flute, with some modification, was in use for well over one hundred years. Many professional flutists used it as the instrument of preference to near the end of the eighteenth-century. Some amateurs used the one-keyed flute even longer. One could purchase a one-keyed wooden flute in the Sears, Roebuck Catalogue in the United States in 1908 for $1.55.
In the eighteenth century, the flute was the most popular of all wind instruments. It was considered very fashionable, as evidenced by Frederick the Great of Prussia's great passion for the instrument. Composers found a market for flute music among both amateurs and professionals, and consequently the eighteenth century is rich in flute literature.
Names
The one-keyed flute has many names. Eighteenth-century tutors refer to it as the one-keyed flute, the cross or transverse flute (la flûte traversière, die Querflöte, or flauto traverso), and the German flute (flûte d'Allemagne). (Be aware that in the early part of the eighteenth century, the simple term "flute" [flauto] usually referred to the recorder.) Today the instrument is variably referred to as the "one-keyed flute," the "baroque flute" (certainly appropriate for the early eighteenth-century instrument), or the "traverso," a shortened version of its Italian name. I shall refer to it as the one-keyed flute.
Materials Used
Historically, one-keyed flutes have been made mostly of wood. Quantz (1752) declared boxwood to be the most common and durable, but he preferred ebony for its clear and beautiful tone. Tromlitz (1791) said both ebony and grenadilla produced a flute tone that was brighter and stronger than boxwood. Kingwood and ivory were also used. However, ivory was used more often to decorate wooden flutes, and many flutes featured ivory ferrules at each joint and an ivory end cap.
Range
The range of the one-keyed flute is d' to a'". However, I recommend that the beginner limit the first efforts to the more traditional range of d' to e'".
Concerning the Highest Notes
During the first part of the eighteenth century, the highest practical note was considered to be e'". Hotteterre (1707, pp. 45-46) writes:
The notes above e'" are forced notes, and cannot enter naturally in any piece. Furthermore you must not persist in wanting to find them at the beginning, as it is a trouble which you must spare yourself until you are very advanced.
Quantz (1752, p. 57) agrees, saying, "The highest usable note that you can invariably produce is e'". Those which are higher require a particularly good embouchure."
The third octave f is a bad note on some instruments. Hotteterre (1707, p. 46) finds that it "can almost never be done on the flute" and omitted it from his fingering chart. The third octave f sharp and g are easier to play.
Despite the difficulties of the third octave, it is not uncommon to find the flute's range extended beyond e'". One notable example is J. S. Bach's Partita in a minor for solo flute where we find an a"' at the end of the first movement.
In the latter part of the eighteenth century, notes beyond e'" appear with increasing frequency. Flute construction during this period tended to favor the high register a little more and the third octave spoke with greater ease.
ON THE PARTS OF THE FLUTE
Because there were many instrument makers, and because the one-keyed flute evolved and changed over the course of more than a century, many variations of the one-keyed flute exist. Although some makers added keys, foot registers, and tuning slides, the simpler one-keyed flute described below was the most standard flute in use during the eighteenth century and remained in use well past the beginning of the nineteenth century.
Three-Piece Flute
The earliest one-keyed flute had three parts: a head joint, a middle joint, and a foot joint. Today one such three-piece flute is referred to as the "Hotteterre" flute because it resembles one with distinctive ornamental turnings attributed to the Hotteterre family of instrument makers.
Four-Piece Flute
By about 1720, makers had divided the middle joint of the flute into two parts, an upper-middle joint and a lower-middle joint. Four-piece flutes are replicated more frequently by today's flute makers than the three-piece instrument described above.
The Tenon
The tenon is that part of the flute joint which fits into the socket of the adjacent joint. Tenons are traditionally wrapped in thread (silk, cotton, or linen) that has been rubbed with wax. Modern replicas sometimes have cork-covered tenons. Regardless of whether the tenons are wrapped with cork or thread, they must be waxed or greased regularly.
The Cork
The cork at the end of the head joint is movable and its placement is critical for good intonation. First, set the cork somewhere between .75 and 1 inch (20–25 millimeters) from the center of the blow hole. An easy way to measure cork placement is with a wooden dowel rod. Purchase a 12-inch (30 centimeters) length measuring about one-half inch (12.5 millimeters) in diameter (available at craft shops or lumber yards) and simply measure and mark the dowel rod with a pencil about .75 inch (20 millimeters) from one end. The dowel rod, placed inside the head joint, serves the same purpose as the metal rod furnished with today's modern flutes; adjust the head cork so that the pencil mark falls in the center of the embouchure hole.
Next, you must further refine the cork's placement to suit your own way of playing. Each flutist may have a slightly different cork placement, reflecting individual embouchures and ways of blowing. Using the fingerings from the Basic Fingering Chart on page 63, tune d' with d" and d'" If the octaves are true, the cork placement is correct. However, if you find the d's are not in tune, you will need to adjust the cork (and subsequently your pencil mark on the dowel rod). Quantz (1752, p. 33) recommends the following adjustments.
The cork must also be adjusted if the player chooses to use a longer or shorter upper-middle joint. (See Corps de réchange on page 9.) Lengthening or shortening the flute in this way disturbs the correct proportions of the instrument and the intonation suffers. To remedy this problem, the cork is pushed in toward the embouchure hole when a long upper joint is used and drawn back when a short upper joint is used. The cork can be moved by using the same half-inch dowel rod you used to measure the cork placement.
The Screw Cap
Some flutes are fashioned with a screw attached to the cork. The screw cap is a simple mechanism for adjusting the position of the cork and is especially useful when changing middle joints. The player simply turns the end cap to draw the cork out. The following illustration of a Quantz head joint (Reilly translation of Quantz, Versuch, 1985) shows the cork with a screw attached.
The Foot Register
Some flutes may have a foot register, which is a telescoping, adjustable foot joint useful for making adjustments in tuning when changing middle joints. The foot joint is made a little shorter for each shorter middle piece (corps de réchange). Some makers of modern replicas offer the foot register as an option. Quantz (1752) was among those eighteenth-century flutists who strongly opposed the use of the foot register because, in his opinion, it throws the flute out of tune.
ON PITCH
Pitch was not standardized in the eighteenth century. It varied greatly from country to country, from city to city, and even within the same city. We find evidence that flutists were required to play at every imaginable pitch standard from very low (A-c.392 and lower) to very high (A-440 and higher).
Quantz's (1752) personal preference was for lower-pitched flutes, which he found to be more pleasing, moving, and majestic; he found higher-pitched instruments to be more penetrating.
Modern Replicas
A-415 has been adopted as a useful compromise for today's performers of most baroque music. Modern replicas of one-keyed flutes are most commonly, but not exclusively, made at A-415.
Modern replicas may also be pitched a whole step low (A-c.392) or lower. "French chamber pitch," as this is sometimes called, is appropriate for the music of early eighteenth-century French composers and the music of J. S. Bach, and was the preference of Frederick the Great.
Some twentieth-century flute makers will make a modern replica at A-440, referred to as "modern pitch," to accommodate players who are working with other musicians using this pitch standard.
The one-keyed flute is used today in several professional orchestras which specialize in the use of period instruments. Baroque orchestras usually require the use of flutes tuned at A-415. However, Classical orchestras have established a higher pitch as a basis for tuning and require a one-keyed flute (or more keys for later Classical repertoire) tuned at A-430 or even higher.
Corps de réchange
It would of course have been impractical for eighteenth-century flutists to own many instruments, each built to a different pitch. The more practical solution to the need for flexibility to play at varying pitch standards was in place by about 1720. According to Quantz (1752) flute makers began to make anywhere from two to six or more uppermiddle joints of varying lengths. The French call these interchangeable joints corps de réchange.
The use of longer corps de réchange lowers the pitch, and the use of shorter corps de réchange raises the pitch, allowing the flutist to play at different pitch standards.
Some makers of modern replicas make a flute with two or more corps de réchange. For instance, one may be tuned at A-415 and one at A-392. This way the flutist can own one instrument, yet has the ability to play at two pitch standards. An adjustment of the cork is necessary when changing joints. When playing at A-415 the player uses the shorter corps de réchange and draws the cork away from the embouchure hole.
When playing at A-392, the player uses the longer corps de réchange and pushes the cork in toward the blow hole.
Be aware that it is very difficult to design a one-keyed flute with two or more corps de réchange (and therefore two or more pitches) that plays equally well "in tune" at various lengths and pitches. Most often, one pitch has been favored, and the flute will simply play best in tune at that pitch. Discuss this concept with your flute maker to see how he or she has handled the problem.
ON CHOOSING A FLUTE
A good instrument that is tuned truly reduces the task of playing by half
Quantz (1752, p. 51)
Today's players of one-keyed flutes can choose from among high-quality modern replicas made by craftsmen around the world, including the United States, Canada, Australia, Europe, South America, Russia, and Japan. Replicas are usually copies of specific historic flutes from the eighteenth century. And of course a few fine antique instruments are available on the market as well.
There are many decisions to be made when selecting a flute. Ask for assistance from a professional player. Also seek the guidance of flute makers who know by the orders they fill which flutes are most in demand. Look for a flute with good workmanship, with the tone color you desire, designed in a style to suit the music you will play, and that plays well in tune and is pitched according to your needs.
Three important decisions you will need to make are (1) the pitch of the flute, (2) the style of the flute, and (3) the type of wood used in its construction.
Pitch
Determine what pitch you would like the flute to be. The common standard today for most baroque music is A-415. Choose a pitch that allows you to play with colleagues and friends. Does your harpsichordist normally tune the instrument to A-415? Is there another flutist with whom you wish to perform? What pitch is his or her flute? The tone of the flute is markedly different at different pitches. A higher-pitched flute is more brilliant and penetrating; a lower-pitched flute is softer and more mellow.
Style
You may wish to match the instrument to the music you will play or to the circumstances in which you will play. Will you do orchestral playing? Or will you find yourself more often in intimate chamber music settings? While some replicas can be used for a variety of music, others are more specialized or suited to a smaller range of styles. A flute designed for the music of Hotteterre won't be suitable for late eighteenth-century Mozart. Ask your flute maker for advice. Some popular reproductions today are modeled after instruments by Hotteterre (French maker, after Graz original c.1700), Denner (Nuremberg maker, after original played by Hünteler, early eighteenth century), Bressan (London maker, pre-1730), Rottenburgh (Brussels maker, after original in the Kuijken collection, c. 1770), and August Grenser (Dresden maker, second half of the eighteenth century).
Woods
You may be asked what type of wood you prefer. Today's replicas are commonly made of boxwood, ebony, cocus wood, rosewood, or grenadilla. Grenadilla is the most dense and rosewood the least dense. The type of wood used in flute construction affects its tone quality, although modern makers tell me that the shape of the bore and cut of the tone and embouchure holes have a much more profound effect on the tone than the choice of wood. Try several and see which you prefer. A popular "beginning model" by Aulos of Japan is made of plastic. Because of international laws governing the sale of ivory, few replicas are made of ivory or have ivory trim.
Used Flutes
Don't shy away from purchasing a used instrument. According to Quantz (1752, p. 51), "Generally a good and accurately tuned flute that has been frequently played is always preferable to a new one."
ON CARE
Now if you have such a flute ... spare no effort to maintain it so that it cannot be spoiled.
Tromlitz (1791, p. 40)
The one-keyed flute has its own unique set of requirements for proper care. Many fine flutes from the eighteenth century have survived, evidence that with proper care, a flute can last for centuries. I am indebted to flute-makers Roderick Cameron and Ardal Powell for much of the following information on flute care.
Checklist
[] Never store the flute in extreme heat or cold. Never allow your flute to lie exposed to the rays of the sun. Never leave the flute near a heating vent or fireplace. Never leave your flute in the trunk of your car in very cold or very hot weather. These cautionary measures will help guard against cracking.
[] Never bring the flute into a warm room from the cold outdoors and play it immediately or it may crack. Don't blow warm air through the flute to warm it up. Allow it to gradually warm to room temperature.
[] Never store the flute in low humidity environments. A wooden flute will dry out quickly in low humidity and may crack. Winter conditions in the Midwest and on the East coast of the United States produce low humidity factors, as do conditions in a heated home or studio. As a measure of prevention, carry a commercial humidifier (look in tobacco shops for a tiny humidifier the size of a tube of lipstick called a Humistat) in the case during the dry winter months; check it frequently and keep it damp. Store a wooden or ivory flute (in its box) in a plastic bag or plastic box (like a Tupperware container) during periods of low humidity and also when the flute is not in use for an extended period of time.
[] Never assemble the flute if the joints feel too tight. If the tenons are wrapped with thread, adjust the wrappings for a proper fit.
[] Never put the flute away wet in a horizontal position. Lindsay (1828–30) says that doing so will cause the water to accumulate on one side of the tube, expand that place, and throw the instrument out of tune for the moment; the flute will eventually rot from such treatment.
[] Play a new flute or a newly acquired antique flute only ten minutes on the first day and gradually increase the playing time over a ten-day period. This allows the moisture on the player's breath to permeate the wood evenly, which helps to avoid cracking or warping the bore.
(Continues...)
Excerpted from Method for the One-Keyed Flute by Janice Dockendorff Boland. Copyright © 1998 The Regents of the University of California. Excerpted by permission of UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS.
All rights reserved. No part of this excerpt may be reproduced or reprinted without permission in writing from the publisher.
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Table of Contents
PREFACEACKNOWLEDGMENTS
CHAPTER I ABOUT THE ONE-KEYED FLUTE
On the Flute
A bit of history
Names
Materials used
Range
Concerning the highest notes
On the Parts of the Flute
Three-piece flute
Four-piece flute
The tenon
The cork
The screw cap
The foot register
On Pitch
Modern replicas
Corps de rechange
On Choosing a Flute
Pitch
Style
Woods
Used flutes
On Care
Checklist
Oiling the flute
CHAPTER II LEARNING TO PLAY THE ONE-KEYED FLUTE
On Getting Started
How to proceed
Assembly
On Holding the Flute
Physical problems
Left hand
Right hand
Checklist
An interesting side line
On Tone
Checklist
Embouchure
Amusing side line
CHAPTER III
On Homogeneity of Sound (Tone Color Tendencies)
Strong notes
Weak notes
Changes at century's end
On Key (Tonality)
On Vibrato
The flattement
How is the flattement executed?
How is the flattement used?
The flattement with the messa di voce
Notation
Are we certain that breath vibrato was not used?
Recommended readings
On Intonation
How to tune
Playing "in tune"
Enharmonic notes
Practical application
Practicing good intonation
Adjusting for intonation
On Playing Forte and Piano
Using the screw cap
On Rhythmic Hierarchy
"Good" notes, "bad" notes
Practical application
Quick notes
Beating time
Recommended readings
On Articulation
Articulation silences
Unslurred notes
Eighteenth-century patterns for quick notes
Double tonguing
Recommended readings
On Further Readings
CHAPTER III FINGERINGS FOR THE ONE-KEYED FLUTE
On Fingerings
Why so many choices?
Lowering the pitch
Use of the key
Extending the range
Alternate f sharp
How many fingerings?
On Trills
Wide Trills
Execution
Recommended readings
Explanation of the Charts
Basic Fingering Chart
Complete Fingering Chart
Table of Trills
Flattement Chart
CHAPTER IV EXERCISES AND TUNES TO PLAY
About the Music
Duet playing
Exercises and Tunes (Eighteenth-Century Sources)
D Major
G Major
e mmor
A Major
CHAPTER V MODERN STUDIES FOR ONE-KEYED FLUTE
Introduction to Modern Studies
Practice Routine
Modern Exercises
Major sequences for the one-keyed flute
Broken chord studies in the major keys
Broken chord studies in minor keys
APPENDIX A THE "TOP 13" EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY FLUTE TUTORS
APPENDIX B ON REPERTOIRE FOR THE
BEGINNING ONE-KEYED FLUTIST
Easy solos
Collections
Studies
Easy Duets
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY: BEFORE 1853
AFTER 1853