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| ISBN-13: | 9781786494801 |
|---|---|
| Publisher: | Atlantic Books |
| Publication date: | 11/01/2018 |
| Edition description: | None |
| Pages: | 224 |
| Product dimensions: | 5.50(w) x 8.50(h) x 0.80(d) |
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CHAPTER 1
LIFESPAN
HOW LONG DID ROMANS LIVE?
The 'ancient world' in this book will cover the period from c. 700 BC, when the West's first literature appeared in Greece, to the collapse of the Roman Empire in the West, i.e. roughly AD500. During that time we have examples of people living to over 100. That is entirely possible. What is much more difficult to decide is the normal life expectation across the whole population.
Below are given the UK statistics for 2015. Those are the sorts of figures we would love to have for the ancient world. But though Romans did take censuses of male citizens and their property every five years, they appear only patchily in our sources.
Then again, about 100,000 tomb inscriptions (epitaphs) survive. These are extremely interesting for all sorts of reasons, recording everyone from consuls to slaves to professional buffoons. But they are unreliable for census purposes, because they are too selective, being dominated by adult males. The same is true of written records – as will become clear.
UK STATISTICS
Our 'census' is taken over from Latin census, 'registration'. In Rome, this information was used to classify male citizens for class, military and tax purposes.
In the United Kingdom the Office for National Statistics produces an annual population count. In 2015, out of a population of 65.1 million:
• 1.5 million were above 85 (2.3 per cent)
• 11.6 million were over 65 (17.8 per cent)
• 23.6 million were over 50 (36.2 per cent)
• There are now more people in the UK over 65 than there are under 18
• Half a million were over 90 (70 per cent of them women)
• The life expectancy at birth for females is 82.8, and for males 79.1
• A girl born in 2011 has a 1 in 3 chance, a boy a 1 in 4 chance, of living to 100
• The median age is now 40, the highest it has ever been 'Median age' is not the average age: it means the age at which half the population is younger, half older.
The latest figures for 2016 show a small increase on all these figures: for example, total population 65.6 million, over-85s 2.4 per cent, and so on.
ROMAN TOMBSTONES: AN IMPOSSIBLE PICTURE
The Roman Empire at its height numbered perhaps 60 million; the total of lives over the c. 500 years during which the Empire survived, far more. From this period we have recovered c. 100,000 funerary inscriptions from across the Roman world. This looks like vital evidence for demographic purposes, i.e. describing the size, structure and distribution of the population. But for that purpose it is, in fact, largely useless.
DODGY STATS
There are 10,697 epitaphs from Roman North Africa. These yield the following statistics:
26.5 per cent (2,835) lived to 70 or over;
2.96 per cent (313) to 100 or over; and
0.25 per cent (27) to 120 or over.
Now look at the UK statistics. It seems unlikely that (given diet, disease, medical understanding, etc.) Roman North Africa's ancient population could have so easily outlived today's UK population.
DODGIER STATS
In one region of North Africa tombstone data from 1,258 individuals would suggest that:
The average life expectancy was 60.2;
39.3 per cent (494 people) were over 70; but only
0.5 per cent (6) were under 10!
This is obviously absurd and confirms the point about the unreliability of epitaphs as evidence for age statistics. The fact is that tombstones marked the death of someone precious. So they could not add up to a serious record of a whole society's age range or life expectancy. If they told one anything, it would be about why the deceased was important to the family or friends who paid for the monument to be put up.
Finally, when one does collate the information from all of them and try to draw demographic conclusions, the result describes a society the like of which has never existed anywhere at any time: a high preponderance of males over females, and very few babies (calculations vary from 0.4 per cent to 1.3 per cent!).
WRITTEN RECORDS
Pliny the Elder's 37-volume encyclopedia (Natural History) of the Roman world survives complete. One section was devoted to human longevity. Apart from the obviously mythical or transparently dodgy, he mentioned a few over-100s: a man who lived to 108, and a woman to 115 (she also bore 15 children). The actress Galeria Copiola appeared on stage aged 104 to celebrate Augustus' recovery from illness in AD 8. Nothing wrong with that: it is entirely feasible that very rare individuals did live to such an advanced age.
DODGIER WRITTEN RECORDS
Pliny quoted a census from AD 74. One might expect serious information from such a source. But using the census from one region of Italy, Pliny reported that:
81 people survived into their 100s, including
4 up to 135 or 137; and
3 up to 140.
This strains credulity somewhat. The reason may possibly be that all the people quoted were born before Augustus introduced a system of birth registration, set up in AD 4 and AD 9. How, therefore, the census could have been certain of their birth dates is not clear.
ROMAN LIFE EXPECTANCY
Epitaphs and written records do not give us any demographic help. What, then, can we do? Make a best guess is the answer, with the help of reliable life statistics from the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. These life statistics, gathered from very different cultures all over the world, are used by insurance companies to work out the likelihood of this sort of person with this sort of lifestyle at this age (etc.) living for – how much longer? Scholars proceed as follows:
First, the birth and death rate of any ancient population we know about must have been of such a sort as to create a stable society. That means enough children survived for long enough to have children themselves. If that was not the case, the society would have died out.
Second, scholars make a guess at the average age expectancy of the population: in this case, our guess is about twenty-five years. Why? Because lower than twenty and the society would have died out; but to get it above thirty, the ancients would need to have had a far better understanding of illness, hygiene, diet (etc.) than they did (seep. 66). Further, the evidence from the written record as a whole – including, for example, tax records, legal texts, censuses and so on – does not make it wildly unlikely that an average life expectancy of about twenty-five years is wrong.
So, making those assumptions, scholars ask the question: what would be the life expectancy of a stable society whose average age was twenty-five?
WORLD RECORDS
Coale-Demeny life tables were constructed in 1966 by the Americans Ansley Coale and Paul Demeny. They were derived from 192 life tables based on a range of statistical records, some before 1900, some after the Second World War. Of those tables, 176 came from Europe, America, Australia and New Zealand and a sprinkling of the rest from Africa, Asia, Japan, etc.
On the strength of those records, it is assumed that in the ancient world – bar peaks and troughs for special circumstances – conclusions can be drawn about the lifespans of a stable population whose age expectancy was twenty-five. Of course, while the percentages given accurately reflect the statistics, they are far too precise to reflect the reality of the very different regions of the ancient world.
LESS DODGY STATS
Current best guesses about the ancient world derived from life tables suggest:
About a third of babies died within a month or so of birth; about half would be dead by the age of 5. Disease, bad diet and poor hygiene would be the main killers.
c. 50 per cent of the population was 20 or under.
Nearly 80 per cent was dead by 50.
What a nightmare – a world dominated by teenagers! Contrast nowadays, where over 20 per cent of the population is 65 and over – actually more than the number under 18.
HOW MANY MORE YEARS TO LIVE?
Imagine a cohort of 100,000 Roman babies born at the same time.
At age 1 – 65,000 would be alive; at age 5 – 50,000; at age 10 – 48,000; at age 20 – 43,500; at age 30 – 36,500; at age 40 – 30,000; at age 50 – 21,000; at age 60 – 13,000; at 70 – 5,500.
AN INFORMED ANCIENT GUESS
A Roman lawyer called Ulpian (c. AD 170–223) produced a practical life table of his own. Its purpose is not clear: it has been suggested that it was used to calculate the value of maintenance bequests left in wills. It is clearly unscientific, but the results look roughly along the right lines:
Current age Further years expected
Up to 19 30
20–24 28
25–29 25
30–34 22
35–39 20
40–49 19, reducing by 1 year annually to 10
50–54 9
55–59 7
60 and over 5
WOMEN TAKE THE STRAIN
A high death rate is usually matched by high fertility, and it needed to be if the Roman population was to remain stable. Given widowhood, sterility, divorce and so on, every woman would have had to give birth to between 6 and 9 children to keep up replacement levels. Here are three grim examples of family loss:
The epitaph of one Veturia recorded that she died aged 27 after 16 years of marriage, having lost 5 of her 6 children.
The political reformers Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus and their sister Sempronia (second century BC) were the only three siblings to survive out of nine.
The emperor Marcus Aurelius and his wife Faustina had 13 children. Marcus died in AD 180. Only 5 of his children survived him.
DEMOGRAPHICS AND THE PATERFAMILIAS
A feature of Roman life that Romans saw as unique to themselves was the position of the paterfamilias, early Latin for the 'father' (pater) of the 'household' (familia). This was the belief that the paterfamilias had complete authority over everyone and everything in his household. He was the master of family, persons and property, to such an extent that one could own nothing over which the paterfamilias did not have total control right up until the moment of his death. This could raise the faintly absurd prospect of a paterfamilias living to, say, 85 (like Cato the Elder) and continuing to rule over sons and grandsons who were consuls! But as the age statistics suggest, c. 70 per cent of sons would be fatherless by the age of 25, and 95 per cent would be by the age of 40. So if there was a problem with Papa, it would not last long. One consequence would be many underage children living with relatives or under guardianship.
THE LIVING FAMILY
Latin had names for grandfather/mother going up to great-great-great-great-grandfather/mother. But living grandparents rarely featured in the literature. The reason is that (as the full tables show) by the age of ten a Roman had only a 50-50 chance of having any grandparents alive; a Roman aged twenty would have less than a 1 in 100 chance of having their paternal grandfather still alive, women being slightly more long-lived.
So, although grandparents from the mother's side would be more common, grandparents generally were not a big presence in Roman children's lives. An exception was the mother of Quintilian, whose young wife died at 19, leaving granny with the main job of raising their two sons – both of whom died young (see p. 51).
GLADIATORS
Some occupations were more dangerous than others. Gladiatorial combat is an obvious example. A large number of inscriptions recorded gladiatorial deaths, and among them we find, for example, from a gladiatorial training school in Venusia (southern Italy), the names of at least 29 dead gladiators:
• 10 were trainees, who died before they ever entered the ring (presumably from training accidents or illness)
• 19 died during or after fighting – 3 after 1 fight; 4 after 2; 3 after 3; 1 after 4; 2 after 5; 1 after 6; 2 after 7; and 3 after 12.
Other inscriptions gave ages. We find a gladiator
• aged 23, dying after 8 fights
• aged 27, dying after 11 fights
• aged 34, dying after 21 fights
• aged 30, dying after 34 fights (won 21, drawn 9, lost 4).
Surviving inscriptions from Pompeii recorded that a quarter of the gladiators had more than ten years' experience, and the remainder less. Meanwhile, in a gladiatorial graveyard from Ephesus in Roman-occupied Asia Minor (Turkey), 68 bodies have been identified, all but 2 being males aged between 20 and 30.
Put together, all the available gladiatorial statistics suggest A median lifespan of 22.5.
As to the purpose of these games, Romans loved to see blood spilled, but equally they wanted a good fight. So a popular fighter who surrendered would probably be allowed to live, so that he could fight again – we hear of some winning between 60 and 150 fights – as would any man who put on a good show (see p. 86).
ANCIENT VIEWS OF AGE STAGES
The statistics on p.12 soffer us the best guess we can make at the prospects of life for a newborn child. For those that survived, the Roman envisaged a number of possible life stages. Generally, they thought of three: youth, maturity and old age. The Greek philosopher Pythagoras (c. 580–c. 500 BC) was the first classical 'four-arc' man. For him these consisted of twenty-year stages: 0–20 childhood, 20–40 adolescence, 40–60 youth and 60–80 old age. Still young at 59, eh? Pythagoras clearly anticipated all those panting 'life-stylists' with their fast-flowing biros who now proclaim 59 to be the new 16.
The four arcs of life
The scabrously witty and often lyrical poet Martial wrote a poem celebrating his birthday. It was 1 March and he was 57 (the late AD90s). Far from putting on a party and being given presents, in our fashion, the Roman birthday boy carried out a religious ritual on His own behalf, celebrating himself and praying for many more such happy anniversaries. So Martial duly offered the usual cakes and smoking incense to the gods and now asked for eighteen more years, to bring him up to 75, when he would have completed 'the three arcs of life'. The fourth was piteous senility, on which he was not so keen. The gods did not grant his wish: he died in his sixties.
The medical four
Why did Pythagoras choose four 'arcs' of life? One answer is because it connected with medical theory.
Ancient doctors believed that bodily health was controlled by the balance of four liquids ('humours') in the body: blood, phlegm, yellow bile and black bile. These could be related to other natural phenomena in fours: earth, air, fire and water (the four basic constituents of the world); heat, cold, wetness and dryness; and most importantly for Pythagoras (perhaps), the four seasons: spring, summer, autumn and winter. As one doctor explained, the child was wet and warm (like spring), the youth dry and warm (summer), the man dry and cold (autumn), and the old man wet and cold (winter). Indeed, such was the influence of the four humours of ancient thought down the millennia that even the four Gospels were made to fit the sequence!
Solon's ten stages
Solon (c. 640–c. 560BC), an important political reformer (and poet) in Athens, produced the first Greek account of man's ages – ten of them in all – in seven-year units.
The ten ages can be summarized as follows. Note that Solon was here thinking of the physical and political/social development of an aristocratic male, dedicated to serving his society to the best of his ability. Women need not apply.
1–7: grows and loses first teeth
8–14: first signs of physical maturity slowly appear
15–21: still growing, fuzzy chin, skin changing colour
22–28: peak of strength, 'when men show they are men'
29–35: time to marry and produce sons to continue the line
36–42: altogether sensible, no more irresponsible behaviour
43–49
50–56 wisdom and eloquence at their peak
57–63: capable, but losing a degree of mental grip
64–70: time to hand in the dinner-pail.
The seven-year stages are probably a result of Greek beliefs about the 'magic' of certain numbers. Seven and its multiples (especially multiples of the equally 'magical' three) had a long history of significance in ancient thought, for good or ill: seven planets, days of the week (based on the Old Testament account of the genesis of the world), seven Arabic holy temples, ancient Buddhas, Hindu chakras, Deadly Sins, notes in the scale, colours in the rainbow and so on.
The seven-stage theory
Hippocrates (469–399BC), the famous Greek physician, favoured a 7 x 7 analysis, as an ancient dictionary item tells us:
There are seven ages, according to Hippocrates:
from 1 to 7 (called a 'young child')
from 7 to 14 ('boy')
from 14 to 21 ('adolescent')
from 21 to 28 ('young man')
from 28 to 35 ('man')
from 35 to 42 ('elder')
from 42 to 49 ('old man').
Oh dear! An old man at 42! But this, at least, acknowledges the hard fact of the lessening chance of living beyond 50.
(Continues…)
Excerpted from "Memento Mori"
by .
Copyright © 2018 Peter Jones.
Excerpted by permission of Atlantic Books Ltd.
All rights reserved. No part of this excerpt may be reproduced or reprinted without permission in writing from the publisher.
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Table of Contents
Acknowledgements,
Introduction,
1 Lifespan,
2 Young versus old: a brief digression,
3 The death of children,
4 The trials of old age,
5 Facing up to death,
6 Exemplary and ignominious deaths,
7 Cicero's De Senectute: 'On Old Age',
8 Death and burial,
9 Epitaphs and the afterlife,
10 Epilogue: Memento Mori,
Appendix: A Curse Tablet,
Dramatis personae,
Bibliography,
Index,