Table of Contents
Table of Contents
Acknowledgments
Preface
Introduction
Part
1. Hypertension: An Overview
Overview of Blood Pressure and High Blood Pressure 8
Are There Symptoms of High Blood Pressure? 8
Blood Pressure Measurements 9
Proper Steps to Measure Blood Pressure Manually 9
What Is Hypertension or High Blood Pressure? 11
Prehypertension 13
Risk Factors for Prehypertension 15
Prehypertension Stages 15
I’ve Been Diagnosed with Prehypertension. What Is the Course of Action? 15
Dentistry and Hypertension 18
Home Blood Pressure Monitoring 19
Classifications of High Blood Pressure 19
Etiology (Causes) of Hypertension 20
Adult Blood Pressure Levels 20
Risk Factors for Hypertension 22
2. Hypertension Prevalence
Prevalence of Hypertension in African Americans 23
Diseases Attributable to Hypertension 24
Statistics of Hypertension, Mortality, and Morbidity—A Brief Overview 27
Manifestation of Hypertension (Pathophysiology) 29
Sodium Sensitivity 29
Genetics 30
Natural History of Essential Hypertension 31
How Complicated Hypertension Affects Target Organs 31
Variation in Rates of High Blood Pressure by Age, Gender, and Race 33
Brief Overview: Role of the Heart in Blood Pressure 34
Position of the Heart 35
3. Cardiovascular Disease
Home Blood Pressure Monitoring 38
Negative Outcomes of Clinic Visits Versus Home Blood Pressure Monitoring 39
Self-Management for Hypertension Using Home Blood Pressure Monitoring 40
Ambulatory Blood Pressure Monitoring 44
Reducing Risk Factors of Coronary Heart Disease in Special Populations to Meet Healthy People 2020 Objective 47
Hypertension and Its Relation to Left Ventricular Hypertrophy 49
Prevalence of Cardiovascular Disease (CVD) 51
Definition of Heart Failure 53
Stages of Heart Failure 54
Heart Failure in Ethnic Minority Populations in Canada 55
Role of Diabetes and Coronary Artery Disease 56
Hypertension and Heart Disease in Diabetes 57
Some Coronary Artery Changes in People with Diabetes and Whether Vitamin D Deficiency Plays a Role 58
Biochemical Changes in Diabetes 61
Diabetic Atherosclerosis 61
Diabetic Coronary Plaque 61
Heart Disease Risk Factors 62
4. Vitamin D
What Is Vitamin D and How Is It Metabolized? 64
Functions of Vitamin D 65
Does Vitamin D Play a Role in the Development of Hypertension? 66
Some Food Sources of Vitamin D 68
The Connection Between Vitamin D Insufficiency and Blood Pressure: A Comparison 68
Lower Vitamin D Levels and Mortality 69
Parathyroid Hormone and Vitamin D Levels 71
Low Vitamin D Levels and Cardiovascular Disease 72
5. Kidney Disease
Brief Description of the Kidneys 73
Functions of the Kidneys 73
Causes of Kidney Disease 74
The Kidneys: Fluid Balance, Electrolytes, and Waste Products 75
Renin and Blood Pressure 76
Economic Impact of Kidney Disease in the United States 76
Two Major Complications of Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD) 77
Chronic Kidney Disease and Its Prevalence 77
Prevalence of End-Stage Renal Disease 79
Kidney Disease and Hypertension 79
Does Weight Play a Role in the Development of Chronic Kidney Disease? 80
Left Ventricular Hypertrophy and Hypertensive Chronic Kidney Disease 83
Diabetic Kidney Disease and Blood Pressure 84
Definition of Chronic Kidney Disease 84
The Five Stages of Chronic Kidney Disease and Their Detection 85
Modalities for Kidney Failure—Brief Statistics 86
Hypertension and Kidney Disease 86
Uncontrolled Blood Pressure and Chronic Kidney Disease 87
Autoimmune Diseases and Chronic Kidney Disease 87
End-Stage Renal Disease Treatment in the United States 88
Peritoneal Dialysis and Hemodialysis 89
Vascular Access: A Brief History of the Pioneers 90
Three Types of Vascular Access 90
Arteriovenous Fistula 90
Advantages of Arteriovenous Fistula 92
Disadvantages 92
Maintenance of Arteriovenous Fistula 92
Live Kidney Donors and African Americans 94
6. Stroke and Cerebrovascular Disease
Stroke Mortality Reduction in the United States 97
Risk Factors for Stroke 97
Possible Cause of Stroke 98
How Does Stroke Happen? 98
Prevalence of Stroke 99
Avoidable Deaths Statistics from Stroke, Hypertension, and Heart Disease in the United States 99
Strategies to Avoid Stroke Deaths 100
Mortality: Stroke 101
Lifestyle Changes for Decreasing Stroke Risk 101
Stroke Types 103
Economic Impact of Stroke 105
High Blood Pressure and Ischemic Stroke 105
Genetic Variation and Intracerebral Hemorrhage 107
Disparities in Stroke Risks 107
Effects After Stroke 112
Part
7. Nonpharmacological Management for Hypertension
Individual Lifestyle Modifications for Hypertension Management 117
The Roundtable Recommendation for Blood Pressure Management: The Lifestyle Approach 119
An Overview of the GenSalt Study 121
Adherence Interventions: Lifestyle Modifications, Medicine and Home Blood Pressure Monitoring 122
Intervention Approach: Blood Pressure Improvement in Primary Care for African Americans
Utilization of Community Settings for Lifestyle Interventions 124
Church Interventions to Promote Lifestyle Changes 127
Dietary Supplements for Hypertension 128
Physical Activity for Hypertension Management 129
Hypertension: Gait Slowing in Older Adults 132
Nutritional Intake and Physical Activity as Cardiovascular Risk Factors 135
Self-Efficacy and Self-Care Management for Hypertension 138
A Review of Patient-Tailored Self-Management for Blood Pressure 139
Definition of Self-Management 140
Self-Management for Blood Pressure Control 140
Tailored Interventions’ Effectiveness: Self-Management Behaviors for Chronic Diseases 142
8. Pharmacological Management for Hypertension
Hypertension and Increased Age 147
Consistent Care Versus Standard Care for Blood Pressure Control Among African Americans and Whites 148
Medicine 148
Forms of Medication Used for Hypertension 149
Functions of Blood Pressure Medications 149
Some Popular Blood Pressure Medications 149
JNC 8 Guidelines 153
Resistant Hypertension 154
A Glance: Hypertension Management by Various Hypertension Societies 159
Differences in Medication Response in Non-Hispanic Whites and African Americans 161
Medication Adherence 161
Factors or Barriers to Medication Adherence for Hypertension in Different Cultural Groups 163
Factors That Affect Medication Adherence in African Americans with Hypertension 167
9. Hypertension Case Stories
The Story of an African American Woman 171
The Case of Jasper (J.M.) 172
Janice: A New Diagnosis of Hypertension and Kidney Failure 173
Donald’s Story 174
10. Hypertension: Prevalence, Consequences and Lifestyle Modification Factors
Hypertension Prevalence in Football Players 177
Prehypertension and Hypertension: Physical Therapists’ Involvement 178
High Blood Pressure in Blacks 180
Question: Self-Report Questionnaires for Antihypertensive Medication Adherence 182
Cardiovascular Disease 183
Cardiovascular Disease Risk Factors: Differences in Various Ethnicities in Canada 187
Women and Coronary Artery Disease 190
Blood Pressure and Cardiovascular Disease 191
Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD) 193
End-Stage Renal Disease: Psychosocial Impact and Knowledge Needs
Overview of Vitamin D, Hypertension and Cardiovascular Disease
Summary 203
Appendix 1. Sample Five-Day Meal Plan
Appendix 2. Test Your Knowledge of Hypertension
Bibliography
Index
