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Product Details
| ISBN-13: | 9781609170691 |
|---|---|
| Publisher: | Michigan State University Press |
| Publication date: | 07/11/2005 |
| Series: | Discovering the Peoples of Michigan |
| Sold by: | Barnes & Noble |
| Format: | eBook |
| Pages: | 132 |
| File size: | 3 MB |
About the Author
Read an Excerpt
Latvians in Michigan
By Silvija D. Meija
Michigan State University Press
Copyright © 2005 Silvija D. MeijaAll right reserved.
ISBN: 978-0-87013-754-9
Chapter One
Latvia: Its Location and History
Latvia is located on the eastern coast of the Baltic Sea. It shares borders with Estonia, Russia, Belarus, and Lithuania. Its land area of about 25,000 square miles could be compared to that of Michigan's Upper Peninsula. It is divided into four districts: Latgale, Kurzeme, Vidzeme, and Zemgale. The land is mostly flat, though it features a number of beautiful river valleys and numerous lakes and marshes. Forests cover about 41 percent of Latvia's territory. The climate also can be compared to that of Michigan's Lower Peninsula.
The first known human settlement in the territory that is now Latvia took place soon after the end of the Ice Age, at approximately 9000 bce. By 2000 bce the territory was the northernmost settlement of the Baltic ethnic groups. Baltic and Finno-Ugric tribes mingled in the area, and extensive migration led to the Balts becoming the dominant group in the area.
At the beginning of the twelfth century, the independent development of communities on the eastern coast of the Baltic Sea was interrupted by the arrival of western Europeans, mainly German Christian crusaders who came east to spread the Catholic faith. After a struggle, which lasted many years, the crusaders succeeded in establishing the Livonian state in the territory of present-day Latvia and Estonia. Livonia was a political union of territories belonging to the Livonian Order of Knights and the Catholic Church. Its territory stretched over the homelands of several Baltic tribes. There developed a political and economic unity within the Livonian Order, which eventually stimulated the unification of the local tribes into one Latvian linguistic community.
The Livonian Wars (1558?83) began as Muscovite Russia's attempt to conquer Livonia led to Latvia's partition by Sweden and the Grand Duchy of Poland-Lithuania. The Duchy of Kurzeme (Curland), a semi-independent state paying tribute to Poland, became so successful in the seventeenth century that it held colonies in Africa and on the Caribbean island of Tobago, where people with Latvian or semi-Latvian surnames can still be found today.
The new wave of Russian expansion began in 1700 and in 1795 led to the complete incorporation of the lands on the eastern shore of the Baltic Sea into the Russian empire. The privileged conditions of the largely German landed gentry did not suffer any particular ills under Polish, Swedish, or Russian rule. They continued to subjugate the Latvian serfs, putting them to work on large farms, thus keeping the population in servitude.
The Latvian National Identity Emerges
The Latvians began to consider themselves a separate nation in the first part of the nineteenth century, when the first Latvian-language newspapers were published. The Latvian intelligentsia, especially a group calling itself the "Young Latvians," did a great deal to develop the Latvian literary language and Latvian culture. Threatened by this quest for a national identity, beginning in the 1880s the Russian government began a program of deliberate Russification in the Baltic provinces. All aspects of culture, religion, education, and business were mandated to use the Russian language.
The demand for Latvian national independence became prevalent in the early years of the twentieth century. The revolution of 1905?7 was, in Latvia, an outright struggle against German landowners and the Russian policy of national oppression. The second year of World War I crippled most of the country. As the German army occupied the western half, one-fifth of Latvia's 2.5 million inhabitants became refugees, and most of Latvia's industry was moved to Russia. In order to fight against the German onslaught, Latvian volunteer battalions were formed in July 1915. By 1916 the Latvian Riflemen's force had expanded to eight regiments, with a total of forty thousand soldiers. They succeeded in temporarily halting the German takeover, but after the February revolution of 1917 in Russia, the Latvian Riflemen Strelnieki, whose founder was Janis Goldmanis, were disappointed by mediocre Russian military leadership and were enticed by the radical social and national programs of the Bolsheviks.
In 1918, at the end of World War I, German troops began withdrawing from Latvia. The people regarded the Riflemen and the Latvian Bolsheviks, led by Peteris Stucka, as liberators. The provisional government, headed by Karlis Ulmanis, proclaimed Latvia an independent republic on November 18, 1918. However, the brutal tactics of the Bolsheviks, as well as the famine resulting from their socialist policies, soon turned the Latvian people against them. About half of the Riflemen deserted to the provisional government. In 1918 the overwhelming majority among Latvia's inhabitants supported the new, independent state.
Yet Latvia's German gentry, the wealthy landowners as well as the German volunteers supporting them, wanted to see a pro-German government in Latvia. In April 1919, there was a coup attempt against the Ulmanis government, and in October of the same year, an attempt was made to occupy the territory controlled by the provisional government. On November 11, 1919, however, the German troops were defeated and were soon driven out of Latvia.
Prosperity between the World Wars
Despite the loss of the greater part of its industry and one-quarter of its population, the new Latvian state began to flourish economically, once the struggle for independence had ended. By the end of the 1920s, the nation had reached living standards comparable to those of Western Europe. The most significant political achievement was the agrarian reform, which granted land to almost 145,000 landless peasants and guaranteed the new nation's social and economic stability. Latvia set an example with its approach to minority rights, guaranteeing ethnic minorities, who comprise one-quarter of Latvia's population, full cultural and educational rights. Extensive educational reforms also took place at this time, and the country had the most educated populace per capita in all Europe. During this time of economic development the Minox camera, known as the "spy camera," was invented. The Minox camera was the creation of a gifted technical designer, Walter Zapp, in 1936. Full production began in 1938 at the Valsts Electrotechniska Fabribka. After the war in 1945, the manufacturing was resumed by Mr. Zapp in cooperation with a German company call GmbH. Today it is produced by E. Leitz company in Wetzlar, Germany. Latvia also became known throughout Europe at this time as a major exporter of dairy products, bacon, and forest products. This was a time of tremendous social and economic growth, and national pride was boundless.
An extensive economic and political crisis developed during the 1930s that was caused by parliamentary corruption and frequent changes in the government. Reform plans were developed, but political and economic unrest was inevitable. On May 15, 1934, Karlis Ulmanis and his supporters staged a bloodless coup and established an authoritarian dictatorship in Latvia. President Ulmanis felt that this was the only way to lead the country into political stability, unity, and continuing economic and social progress.
The outbreak of World War II found Latvia unprepared to fight off German or Russian dominance, and relying on its self-declared neutrality was not enough. The lack of a tight military and political union with the other Baltic States, Poland, or other Western nations prevented Latvia from averting the destruction planned for it by the Soviet-German Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact signed on August 23, 1939. In October 1939, the Soviet Union forced Latvia to allow troops into Latvian territory, and by June 17, 1940, the Soviets occupied the country completely. The Latvian government considered military resistance futile and succumbed to the takeover. A small, flourishing country, because of its geographic location on the Baltic Sea, Latvia had historically been at the mercy of giant, imperialist nations. The port in Riga, the capitol, was the most northern port that did not freeze in the winter. This only added to the desirability of controlling the Latvian nation.
The Communist Takeover
A puppet government, at first without any Communists, was established under the leadership of Augusts Kirhensteins. President Ulmanis was allowed to remain in the position of president for another month. Hoping to save his nation from even greater misery, President Ulmanis signed all decrees dictated to him by Moscow. However, the attempt to appease Moscow proved futile and Latvia was annexed into the Soviet Union. A period thereafter known as the "Year of Terror" followed.
On the night of June 13?14, 1941, the Soviets deported approximately 20,700 civilians, including children and the elderly, to Siberia. The Soviets had developed lists of Latvians who they felt were a threat to their power; government officials, ministers, professionals in many fields, as well as those who had spoken against the new regime. In the middle of the night homes were stormed by armed soldiers; men, women, and children were dragged out in their bedclothes, taken in trucks to railway stations, and put in cattle cars to be transported. The Soviets had lists of "alleged" traitors and those working against their regime. The "banging black boot" in the middle of the night sent chills throughout the population. This night remains a deep-rooted memory for many Latvians as the epitome of barbarism and brutality against a peace-loving nation. Over several years, people simply disappeared; their fate was to be shipped to Siberia or killed by the secret police.
In 1941 the Soviets began to nationalize trade and industry, but the German invasion and eventual occupation of Latvia in the summer of that year interrupted their program. The Germans did not return Soviet nationalized property to their rightful owners, except land in the countryside and some homes in the cities. The Germans took advantage of the extensive anti-Communist and anti-Russian sentiment created by the Year of Terror to recruit Latvians for German military units. On February 10, 1943, by direct orders from Hitler, a general mobilization was instituted, which established a separate legion of the SS-Waffen troops, known as the Latvian Legion (Latvijas Legions). It should be noted that most young men were drafted and had no choice but to serve under the insignia of Germany.
The Central Council of Latvia led a significant resistance movement against the German occupation. This group maintained contacts with Sweden, sent documentation of Nazi atrocities to Western allies, and organized the transportation of refugees to Sweden. Pushed back by a Soviet re-invasion, the German army in western Latvia (Kurzeme) surrendered on May 8, 1945. Some 130,000 Latvian refugees fled, by land and sea, mostly to Sweden and Germany, along with the withdrawing German army. This massive exodus took place because many Latvians feared that under the Russian regime they would again face deportation to Siberia or death (and thousands were indeed deported or killed). Most felt that this emigration was temporary; the war would end and they would return to a free homeland to begin life anew. My mother told me that her family had to leave most of their worldly possessions, taking only what they could carry. Yet they locked the apartment door in Riga to await their eventual return. Also, once my parents saw that the Soviet occupation was imminent, they buried (as did many Latvians) silver and crystal pieces in large barrels at their parents' farm. Again, most planned to return to claim their rightful possessions. However, world powers had other intentions, and such a return would not be possible for almost fifty years, until the fall of the Soviet Union.
The Iron Curtain Descends
As the Red Army occupied Latvia for a second time, Sovietization began again. The socialization of the national economy was completed with the collectivization of agriculture. Privately owned land was taken away, and people were forced to live and work in state-owned farms and industries. For example, a farmer who had owned many acres of land and run a prosperous farming operation was left with nothing. All land was confiscated and eventually his home was taken. He and his family were placed in one of the collective apartment buildings that sprouted up throughout the countryside, living in a set living space (a certain square footage was allowed per person). The era of collectivization had begun. By 1953, some 120,000 people had been killed, imprisoned, or deported. The "curtain" was down and none could escape. A proud, hardworking, nationalistic, and culturally rich people had been brought to near annihilation. Those who posed any threat to the new regime were either deported or killed. People could no longer walk with their heads held high, but were relegated to acting as though they were invisible, like shadows, walking with downcast and averted eyes. They were afraid to look anyone in the eyes for fear that they would be arrested for a trumped up charge at the mercy of the occupiers. Terror that would blanket the nation for many years had been implanted.
The Soviet Union also instituted a policy of Russification. Intensive industrialization of the country demanded extra labor. This led to the importation of 750,000 Russian "immigrants." By 1989 the flood of outsiders had lowered the percentage of indigenous Latvians living in the country to as little as 52 percent of the total population. The Russian language dominated both public and private life. An attempt by Latvian Nationalist Communists in 1959 to reverse the trend was suppressed, as were individual dissidents active throughout the occupation. A small country, unable to defend itself with its honest and hardworking people, had been engulfed by the Communist regime.
Open discussion of the effects of Sovietization and Russification began only after the implementation of Mikhail Gorbachev's policies of glasnost and perestroika in 1985. The first open opposition organizations, Helsinki-86 and the Environmental Protection Club, were established in 1986?87 with the aim of protecting human rights and the desecrated environment. Mass rallies took place at the Freedom Monument in Riga on June 14 and August 23, 1987, although countless other rallies were crushed by security forces.
A Ray of Hope: The Restoration of Independence
The Latvian Popular Front (LPF) was a group of individuals who called for an end to the totalitarian regime in Latvia. The front held its first congress in October 1988. It boasted two hundred thousand members and soon became the greatest political force in Latvia at that time. The majority of participants wanted a reformed communist authority with expanded political and economic autonomy for the Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic. A second, more determinedly pro-independence organization, the Latvian National Independence Movement, was established in 1988. As the idea of Latvian independence gained increasing support among the population, the LPF also called for the full independence of Latvia.
August 23, 1989, marked the fiftieth anniversary of the Soviet-German pact that assigned the Baltic states to the Soviet "sphere of influence" and directly led to the Soviet occupation of the Baltics. That day an estimated two million Baltic residents formed an unbroken human chain from the Lithuanian capital of Vilnius, through the Latvian capital of Riga, to the Estonian capitol of Tallinn. This demonstration was called the "Baltic Way." The intent was to show the Soviet regime that the populace was demanding autonomy.
(Continues...)
Excerpted from Latvians in Michigan by Silvija D. Meija Copyright © 2005 by Silvija D. Meija. Excerpted by permission of Michigan State University Press. All rights reserved. No part of this excerpt may be reproduced or reprinted without permission in writing from the publisher.
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Table of Contents
| Preface | ix | |
| What's It All About? | xi | |
| Chapter 1 | The Context of Social Work Practice | 1 |
| Part I | Mental Health | |
| Chapter 2 | Introduction to Part I | 23 |
| Chapter 3 | Case Management | 30 |
| Chapter 4 | Community Mental Health | 33 |
| Chapter 5 | Disaster Relief | 37 |
| Chapter 6 | Employee Assistance Programs | 42 |
| Chapter 7 | Military Social Programs | 50 |
| Chapter 8 | Private Practice | 54 |
| Chapter 9 | Rural Social Work | 66 |
| Chapter 10 | Veterans Services | 70 |
| Chapter 11 | Career Opportunities | 73 |
| Part II | Children and Families | |
| Chapter 12 | Introduction to Part II | 81 |
| Chapter 13 | Adoption | 86 |
| Chapter 14 | Child Abuse | 90 |
| Chapter 15 | Child Welfare Practice in Public Settings | 95 |
| Chapter 16 | Domestic Violence | 101 |
| Chapter 17 | Family Preservation Services | 105 |
| Chapter 18 | Foster Care | 109 |
| Chapter 19 | Homeless Families | 115 |
| Chapter 20 | Parent Education | 121 |
| Chapter 21 | Career Opportunities | 124 |
| Part III | Health Care | |
| Chapter 22 | Introduction to Part III | 131 |
| Chapter 23 | Eating Disorders | 134 |
| Chapter 24 | Family Planning | 139 |
| Chapter 25 | Genetics | 145 |
| Chapter 26 | HIV/AIDS | 149 |
| Chapter 27 | Hospital Social Work | 159 |
| Chapter 28 | Career Opportunities | 168 |
| Part IV | Schools | |
| Chapter 29 | Introduction to Part IV | 175 |
| Chapter 30 | Alternative Programs | 186 |
| Chapter 31 | Crisis Intervention | 188 |
| Chapter 32 | Difficulties in School | 194 |
| Chapter 33 | Violence | 198 |
| Chapter 34 | Career Opportunities | 202 |
| Part V | Aging | |
| Chapter 35 | Introduction to Part V | 207 |
| Chapter 36 | Aging Services | 213 |
| Chapter 37 | Case Management | 216 |
| Chapter 38 | Community-Based Services | 220 |
| Chapter 39 | Depression | 223 |
| Chapter 40 | In-Home Services | 231 |
| Chapter 41 | Institutional Care Facilities and Housing Issues | 233 |
| Chapter 42 | Senile Dementia, Alzheimer's Type | 240 |
| Chapter 43 | Terminal Illness: Hospice Care | 243 |
| Chapter 44 | Career Opportunities | 248 |
| Part VI | Substance Abuse | |
| Chapter 45 | Introduction to Part VI | 253 |
| Chapter 46 | Alcoholism | 258 |
| Chapter 47 | New Program Approaches | 262 |
| Chapter 48 | Outpatient Treatment for Drug Abuse | 264 |
| Chapter 49 | Prevention | 268 |
| Chapter 50 | Career Opportunities | 271 |
| Part VII | Other Areas of Service | |
| Chapter 51 | Introduction to Part VII | 277 |
| Chapter 52 | Criminal Justice | 279 |
| Chapter 53 | Developmental Disabilities | 293 |
| Chapter 54 | Housing | 297 |
| Chapter 55 | International Social Work | 304 |
| Chapter 56 | Public Welfare | 308 |
| Chapter 57 | Career Opportunities | 312 |
| Part VIII | Macro Practice | |
| Chapter 58 | Introduction to Part VIII | 319 |
| Chapter 59 | Advocacy | 321 |
| Chapter 60 | Consulting | 338 |
| Chapter 61 | Political Involvement of Social Workers | 342 |
| Chapter 62 | Program Planning | 352 |
| Chapter 63 | Career Opportunities | 356 |
| Part IX | The Future | |
| Chapter 64 | The Future of Social Work | 363 |
| Index | 381 | |
| About the Author | 399 |