eBook
Available on Compatible NOOK devices, the free NOOK App and in My Digital Library.
Related collections and offers
Overview
Product Details
| ISBN-13: | 9789385563232 |
|---|---|
| Publisher: | VIJ Books (India) Pty Ltd |
| Publication date: | 04/01/2016 |
| Sold by: | Barnes & Noble |
| Format: | eBook |
| Pages: | 188 |
| File size: | 412 KB |
About the Author
Read an Excerpt
CHAPTER 1
Introduction
Religious, liberals, leftists, intelligentsia and workers participated in demonstrations, protests, and strikes in 1978-79 that culminated into revolution. It was a coalition of diverse forces under leadership of Ayatollah Khomeini that turned Iran into a new phase. Religious symbols were used to mobilise the masses against the Shah since the regime could not ban it. Mosques were used for gatherings and meetings which turned into political activities. The coalition forces opposed the Shah, but did not have any specific and clear agenda for the post-Shah Iran. Religion played a dominant role during the Revolution and overshadowed everything. The 1979 Revolution was a long process of political socialisation which overthrew the Shah and transformed Iran's society, polity, foreign policy, security, and economy.
The dominance of religion during the Revolution, left an indelible mark on Iran's society, polity, economy, foreign policy, and security. Religion's dominance continued in the post-Shah period that shaped political process and evolved polity in the post-Revolution Iran. With the Shah's departure, a new political culture emerged under influence of religion that swayed the political process. The emergence of a new political culture in the post-Shah period influenced the political process, which gave birth to a new political system. The new political system in the post-Revolution Iran determined its state behaviour. The event of 1979 did not only change Iran's domestic politics, but also its foreign policy. As Iran's foreign policy changed in the post-Shah period, security came under stress, and required a new definition. The concept of security was defined and redefined since Iran had departed from the western security camp. As Iran departed from the western security camp, it had to rely on its own resources to ensure security, and so religion was employed in forces formations.
As the Revolution of 1979 changed domestic politics, Iran's foreign policy too underwent major changes. Ayatollah Khomeini completely reversed the previous regime's foreign policy orientations and objectives that had evolved over a period of time. Iran snapped ties with the world in order to become 'independent' since the Shah regime was depicted during the Revolution as dependent on the US and the West by the revolutionaries. Iran's revisionist foreign policy created bitterness in the region and beyond, and deteriorated its relations with outside world. Meanwhile Iran-Iraq war further complicated the domestic situation and Iran sought to ensure its security and territorial integrity. A friendless Iran sought to ensure its territorial integrity and security, defined and redefined the concept of security to ward off threats.
Domestic situation played vital role in determining foreign and security policy following the Revolution since the new regime concentrated its efforts to ensure its survival. The Revolution 1979 broke the status quo within Iran that worried the regional countries, the US, and the West. For the regional countries, their survival seemed at stake. For the United States and the West, their interests in the region and beyond perceived to be threatened. For the new regime in Iran, its survival perceived to be threatened. Some countries in the region, the US, and the West wished to dislodge the new regime of Iran and made concerted efforts in this direction, but in vain. As they made efforts to dislodge the regime in Iran, they inadvertently strengthened the regime, and Iran survived. External players' role domestically strengthened the hands of new leadership, Ayatollah Khomeini, in consolidating power.
However, Iran delved into isolation following the revolution since it had broke its ties with the outside world in order to become independent. Islamisation process in Iran was perceived as threat among the regional countries and beyond. Iran's revolutionary slogans such as 'Export of Revolution' made it friendless in the region and beyond. Religion played major role in setting direction of domestic politics, thus swayed the foreign and security policy of Iran.
With the Iran-Iraq War ceasefire in July 1988, Iran's relations with outside world began to improve. The normalisation process in Iran's external relations began and the European countries started to lift economic and political sanctions against Iran. The demise of Ayatollah Khomeini in June 1989 and new leadership at Tehran accentuated in normalisation process of Iran's external relations. As the domestic political situation changed, Iran's behaviour with the outside world appeared shifted. The change appeared in the late 1980s and followed into the 1990s, but could not normalise its relations with the US and the West as expected due to several reasons. Hashemi Rafsanjani made efforts to normalise Iran's relations with the outside world but the US policy towards Iran became a hurdle in this direction. The US and the West imposed sanctions in the mid-1990s that became main obstacles in normalising Iran's relations with the outside world. But the presidential elections result of the May 1997 raised expectations for a change in Iran's foreign and security policy.
The result of the May 1997 presidential elections raised expectations for improvement in Iran's relations with the outside world. Mohammad Khatami (1997-2005) made efforts to increase Iran's acceptability in the world and expanded relations with outside world which was initiated by his predecessor, Hashemi Rafsanjani. As he started to improve relations with the outside world, the forces within Iran became active, and domestic politics appeared change. The groups/factions began to organise and reorganise against the Moderates-Reformists and resisted Khatami's policy. The grouping around the Conservatives-Radicals dented Khatami's efforts and his policies. However, Mohammad Khatami's efforts yielded some tangible results and could improve Iran's relations with the outside world. The result of the June 2005 presidential election changed the domestic situation and the Conservatives-Radicals ascended to power.
Mahmoud Ahmedinejad won the June 2005 presidential elections by defeating heavy weight politician Hashemi Rafsanjani. Ahmedinejad reversed policies of the previous regime and assertion appeared in Iran's foreign and security policy. He pursued a pro-active regional policy and opened uranium enrichment process that was suspended voluntarily and temporarily by Mohammad Khatami in negotiations of October 2003 and November 2004 with the E-3 (Britain, France, and Germany). Thus, assertion in Iran's foreign and security policy appeared the same as regime changed at Tehran. The Conservatives-Radicals continued policies which isolated Iran internationally. The UN, the US, and the European countries imposed sanctions one after another and Iranian economy suffered. Iran's international isolation left adverse impact over its economy, thus domestic situation also started to change. By 2012, the conservatives divided and domestic political alignment and realignment began. As division within the conservatives appeared the Moderates-Reformists Islamists took advantages of the opportunity. The Moderates-Reformists united and extended support to Hassan Rouhani in the June 2013 presidential elections, they considered him a moderate. In the June 2013 presidential elections, Hassan Rouhani got support of the Moderates-Reformists and Rafsanjani faction, and won.
The division within the conservatives, alignment of Moderates-Reformists forces, and support of Rafsanjani faction became the main factors in defeating the conservatives candidates by Hassan Rouhani. Although Rouhani belongs to the conservatives side, but now is considered as moderate. With election of Hassan Rouhani as president in June 2013 appeared changes in Iran's foreign and security policy. Undoubtedly, as domestic situation witnessed changes, Iran's foreign and security policy takes shift. From Ayatollah Khomeini to Hassan Rouhani shift witnessed changes in Iran's foreign and security policy.
Undoubtedly, the dominant position of the Velayat-e Faqih in Iran's political system has left a little space for the president to act independently. The Velayat-e Faqih is one of the most important institutions in Iran which carries vast powers and functions. Thus, Ayatollah Khamenei has vast powers and functions in Iranian system similar to Ayatollah Khomeini. This institution plays vital roles in determining foreign and security policy despite directly elected presidency. President plays a role in determining foreign and security policy, but vital and major role is being played by the Velayat-e Faqih. But the Velayat-e Faqih is also influenced with domestic political dynamics and changing factional alliances.
The Concept
Relationship between domestic politics and foreign-security policy of Iran continues to exist since the Revolution of 1979. The effects of domestic developments over Iran's foreign-security policy have appeared throughout the post-Revolution Iran. Domestic situation has been playing decisive role in formulation and implementation of foreign and security policy and they have close relationship. Ayatollah Khomeini led the masses against the Shah, overthrew monarchy and established clerics-rule in Iran. With establishment of clerics-rule in Iran, impact was reflected over Iran's foreign and security policy. Religion played a decisive role in overthrowing monarchy, and the post-monarchy era witnessed religious influence over political process of Iran. Political process started following the Revolution, dominance of religion appeared in all aspects. As a religion, Islam is all encompassing, regulating almost every aspect of life and domestic politics, including foreign, defence, and security policy of Iran. Thus, domestic situation is the principal factor in determining foreign and security policy in the post-Revolution Iran. The Islamic Republic ruptured relations with outside world in order to become independent since the clerics-rule regime perceived interactions with outside world as threat to the regime and the country.
Relations between domestic politics and foreign-security policy of Iran has been consistently and persistently seen since the 1979 Revolution. As new administration installs at Tehran, changes appear in foreign and security policy. Undoubtedly, the close relationship between domestic situation and foreign-security policy, which appeared in the early 1980s, continues to exist. The changes in nature, kind, orientation, and objective of Iranian policy appeared in the post-Revolution period linked to domestic situations. The shifts in domestic politics appeared as political factions/groups grew and increased their activities. The effects of these political factions/groups activities were witnessed in Iran's polity, foreign policy, defence policy, and security policy. Thus, domestic situation and the changing character of Iranian polity have had deep impact over Iran's foreign and security policy.
This study raises the questions such as; what is the relationship between domestic situation and foreign-security policy of Iran and how has domestic politics remained the principal factor in determining Iran's foreign and security policy and vice versa? How have political factions/groups' growth and their activities affected Iran's polity? How has evolving polity of Iran affected foreign and security policy? Has the changing character of Iran's polity affected foreign and security policy? Has the changing Iran's polity affected political culture? Has the changing strategic culture, affected foreign and security policy of Iran? How have changes appeared at foreign and security policy since the new Administration was installed at Tehran? How has foreign issues and foreign powers affected Iran's domestic politics. Are the foreign issues and foreign powers remained significant points in deciding Iran's domestic politics and country's behaviour? Political developments inside Iran have effects over its external behaviour.
The relationship between domestic politics and foreign-security policy has continued since 1979 as reflects from the Islamic Republic's policies. The leader of Iranian Revolution, Ayatollah Khomeini brought changes which affected the whole Iran. Each Administration tried to bring changes in the post-Khomeini period, but could not alter the political system as evolved during the Khomeini period. In the post-Khomeini period, Ayatollah Khamenei is principal arbiter pertaining to polity, foreign policy, defence policy, and security policy as his predecessor. Iran experienced changes in foreign and security policy in the post-Khomeini period, but also witnessed continuity, and could not delink from previous policies because of domestic factors. In the absence of Ayatollah Khomeini, Ayatollah Khamenei has been playing principal role in shaping domestic politics, foreign policy, defence policy, and security policy. As a result, continuity with change has been seen at Iran's domestic politics, foreign and security policy, and defence policy.
Literature Survey
Iranian polity has been consistently and persistently affected by factionalism, and as a result, has affected foreign and security policy. Iran's domestic situation has been consistently influencing foreign and security policy. The relationship between domestic politics and foreign-security policy of Iran developed in the early 1980s, still continues. Substantial works have not yet been done on this subject and it deserves to receive attention. Except two books, works that focus on factional politics and its impact over forming policies in the post-Revolution Iran, there are only a few articles in some journals. The articles are generally descriptive and discuss views of the factions and who belongs to what faction. The factions/groups affect political configurations, consequently influence policy issues including foreign and security policy. Shahrough Akhavi's work "Elite Factionalism in the Islamic Republic of Iran" (1987) explains that the elite had successfully consolidated its power, but had failed to evolve consistent public policies, a consistency which normally attends power consolidation. He analyses that inconsistencies in policies persisted because of revolutionary conditions and the Iran-Iraq War. Internal conflict within the ruling elite prevented, for some areas, the articulation of policy lines even on paper. The political system is centralised around the Velayat-e Faqih and the key judicial institutions. The contention between factions on socio-economic issues seemed quite strong but the clerics were united on cultural issues: education, nationalities policy, and the role of women following the Revolution. Divisions among elites appeared on foreign policy issues. Akhavi points out that Hussein Ali Muntaziri and Ali Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani sought to restore relations with the United States in the 1984-1986 period but Hujjat al-Islam Ali Khamenei (Iran's current Velayat-e Faqih), Ayatollah Ali Mishkini (then Chairman of the Council of Experts and Friday mosque prayer leader of Qum), Hujjat al-Islam Khu'ayniha (then State Prosecutor General), Mir Hussein Mussavi (two-term Prime Minister), and others opposed. As divisions in political elites on policy issues appeared in the 1980s that still persists.
Maziar Behrooz's paper "Factionalism in Iran under Khomeini" (1991) describes factions and their views on various issues during Khomeini. Behrooz concurs with Akhavi and explains that factions/groups contested on social, political, foreign policy, and economic issues and factions struggled to influence policy issues. The factions/groups such as "conservatives", "radicals", and "moderates" existed during Ayatollah Khomeini. But Ayatollah Khomeini normally avoided in siding with particular factions or groups. Ayatollah Khomeini had preferred to remain aloof from conflicts of the elite prior to 1987 and interfered only on rare occasions when the situation was about to get out of control. While Ayatollah Khomeini was the ultimate authority, factions sought his approval for their legitimacy, and played an important role in shaping his own views. Behrooz viewed that the Iran-Iraq War ceasefire in July 1988 added a new dimension to, and intensified, factional conflicts. The end of the Iran-Iraq War in 1988 introduced, or rather injected, Iran's foreign policy as an important source of clashes between the factions/political groups. But Behrooz disagrees with Akhavi on the issue of foreign policy during Khomeini period. Iran's priorities during the Iran-Iraq War were different and foreign policy remained, for the most part, outside factional struggle. Sudden end of the Iran-Iraq War changed domestic situation rapidly and made foreign policy an important issue in factional struggles. The factional struggles over Iran's foreign policy had continued between 1979 and 1988, but remained low. After Iran-Iraq War ceasefire, the Radicals clashed with the Moderates over foreign policy and reconstruction. The factional struggles continued over Iran's foreign policy and economic reconstruction and intensified in 1990 and later. The tussle between the Radicals and Moderates over socio-political, economic, and foreign policy issues continued after Khomeini's demise in June 1989.
(Continues…)
Excerpted from "Interplay of Domestic Politics and Foreign-Security Policy of Iran"
by .
Copyright © 2016 Dr. Shah Alam.
Excerpted by permission of Vij Books India Pvt Ltd.
All rights reserved. No part of this excerpt may be reproduced or reprinted without permission in writing from the publisher.
Excerpts are provided by Dial-A-Book Inc. solely for the personal use of visitors to this web site.
Table of Contents
Preface,
Chapter 1 Introduction,
The Concept,
Literature Survey,
Methodology,
Chapter 2 Factional Politics,
Evolution of Party,
Political Trends in the Post-Revolution Iran,
Factions/Parties,
Nature of Polity and Politics,
Domestic Politics and its Dynamics,
Chapter 3 Domestic Politics Impact over Foreign Policy,
Divisions in Setting Direction of Foreign Policy,
Iranian Streets and Foreign Policy,
Confrontational Foreign Policy,
Accommodation and Reconciliation in Foreign Policy,
President Rouhani: Continuity and Change,
The Arab Spring and Iran's Policy,
Economic Sanctions Impact over Foreign Policy,
Political Factions Struggle over Foreign Policy,
Chapter 4 Domestic Politics and Security Policy,
Security Perception,
Geopolitical Realities,
Iran-Iraq War and Impact over Iran's National Security Thinking,
Strategic Culture,
Security Strategy,
Military Doctrine,
Formation of Ideological Forces,
Nuclear Policy and Factional Approaches,
Consequences of Iranian Nuclear Capability/Weapon,
Chapter 5 Conclusion,
Bibliography,
Index,