| Preface | v |
1. | Introduction to Internal Combustion Engines | 1 |
1.1 | Introduction | 1 |
1.2 | Engine Cycles | 2 |
1.3 | Operational Parameters | 6 |
1.4 | Engine Configurations | 12 |
1.5 | Engine Examples | 19 |
1.6 | Alternative Power Plants | 24 |
1.7 | Sources of Additional Information | 26 |
1.8 | References | 27 |
1.9 | Homework | 27 |
2. | Gas Cycles | 29 |
2.1 | Introduction | 29 |
2.2 | Constant Volume Heat Addition | 29 |
2.3 | Constant Pressure Heat Addition | 32 |
2.4 | Dual Cycle | 35 |
2.5 | Miller Cycle | 37 |
2.6 | Finite Heat Release | 39 |
2.7 | Ideal Four-Stroke Process and Residual Fraction | 45 |
2.8 | Discussion of Gas Cycle Models | 53 |
2.9 | References | 54 |
2.10 | Homework | 55 |
3. | Fuel, Air, and Combustion Thermodynamics | 57 |
3.1 | Introduction | 57 |
3.2 | Ideal Gas Equations of State | 57 |
3.3 | Liquids and Liquid-Vapor-Gas Mixtures | 61 |
3.4 | Stoichiometry and Low Temperature Combustion Modeling | 63 |
3.5 | General Chemical Equilibrium | 67 |
3.6 | Chemical Equilibrium Using Equilibrium Constants | 72 |
3.7 | Combustion and the First Law | 75 |
3.8 | Isentropic Processes | 78 |
3.9 | References | 79 |
3.10 | Homework | 80 |
4. | Fuel-Air Cycles | 82 |
4.1 | Introduction | 82 |
4.2 | Comparison of First and Second Law Efficiency | 82 |
4.3 | Otto Cycle | 85 |
4.4 | Four-Stroke Otto Cycle | 90 |
4.5 | Fuel-Injected Limited-Pressure Cycle | 93 |
4.6 | Comparison of Fuel-Air Cycle with Actual Spark Ignition Cycles | 96 |
4.7 | Comparison of Fuel-Air Cycle with Actual Compression Ignition Cycles | 101 |
4.8 | References | 103 |
4.9 | Homework | 103 |
5. | Engine Testing and Control | 105 |
5.1 | Introduction | 105 |
5.2 | Dynamometers | 105 |
5.3 | Fuel and Air Flow Measurement | 108 |
5.4 | Exhaust Gas Analysis | 110 |
5.5 | Residual Fraction | 118 |
5.6 | Pressure-Volume Measurement and Combustion Analysis | 119 |
5.7 | Vehicle Emissions Testing | 123 |
5.8 | Engine Sensors and Actuators in Vehicles | 125 |
5.9 | Engine Control Systems | 128 |
5.10 | Effect of Ambient Pressure and Temperature | 131 |
5.11 | References | 132 |
5.12 | Homework | 133 |
6. | Friction | 134 |
6.1 | Introduction | 134 |
6.2 | Friction Mean Effective Pressure | 134 |
6.3 | Measurements of the Friction Mean Effective Pressure | 135 |
6.4 | Friction Coefficient | 138 |
6.5 | Journal Bearings | 139 |
6.6 | Piston and Ring Friction | 143 |
6.7 | Valve Train Friction | 152 |
6.8 | Pumping Mean Effective Pressure | 156 |
6.9 | Accessory Friction | 157 |
6.10 | Overall Engine Friction Mean Effective Pressure | 158 |
6.11 | References | 161 |
6.12 | Homework | 161 |
7. | Air, Fuel, and Exhaust Flow | 163 |
7.1 | Introduction | 163 |
7.2 | Valve Flow | 163 |
7.3 | Intake and Exhaust Flow | 176 |
7.4 | Fluid Flow in the Cylinder | 183 |
7.5 | Turbulent Flow | 189 |
7.6 | Air Flow in Two-Stroke Engines | 194 |
7.7 | Superchargers and Turbochargers | 201 |
7.8 | Fuel Injectors | 206 |
7.9 | Carburetion | 212 |
7.10 | References | 214 |
7.11 | Homework | 216 |
8. | Heat and Mass Transfer | 221 |
8.1 | Introduction | 221 |
8.2 | Engine Cooling Systems | 221 |
8.3 | Engine Energy Balance | 223 |
8.4 | Cylinder Heat Transfer Measurements | 227 |
8.5 | Heat Transfer Modeling | 230 |
8.6 | Heat Transfer Correlations | 237 |
8.7 | Radiation Heat Transfer | 244 |
8.8 | Mass Loss or Blowby | 246 |
8.9 | References | 250 |
8.10 | Homework | 251 |
9. | Combustion and Emissions | 253 |
9.1 | Introduction | 253 |
9.2 | Combustion in Spark Ignition Engines | 253 |
9.3 | Abnormal Combustion (Knock) in Spark Ignition Engines | 259 |
9.4 | Combustion in Compression Ignition Engines | 264 |
9.5 | Thermodynamic Analysis | 271 |
9.6 | Nitrogen Oxides | 279 |
9.7 | Carbon Monoxide | 285 |
9.8 | Hydrocarbons | 287 |
9.9 | Particulates | 292 |
9.10 | Emission Control | 296 |
9.11 | References | 301 |
9.12 | Homework | 303 |
10. | Fuels and Lubricants | 307 |
10.1 | Introduction | 307 |
10.2 | Hydrocarbon Chemistry | 307 |
10.3 | Refining | 314 |
10.4 | Gasoline Fuels | 316 |
10.5 | Diesel Fuels | 319 |
10.6 | Alternative Fuels | 321 |
10.7 | Engine Oils | 329 |
10.8 | References | 332 |
10.9 | Homework | 333 |
11. | Overall Engine Performance | 334 |
11.1 | Introduction | 334 |
11.2 | Engine Size | 334 |
11.3 | Ignition and Injection Timing | 336 |
11.4 | Engine and Piston Speed | 339 |
11.5 | Compression Ratio | 340 |
11.6 | Part-Load Performance | 341 |
11.7 | Engine Performance Maps | 343 |
11.8 | Vehicle Performance Simulation | 349 |
11.9 | References | 350 |
11.10 | Homework | 350 |
| Appendices | 353 |
A | Physical Properties of Air | 353 |
B | Thermodynamic Property Tables for Various Ideal Gases | 355 |
C | Curve Fit Coefficients for Thermodynamic Properties of Various Ideal Gases and Fuels | 362 |
D | Conversion Factors and Physical Constants | 365 |
| Index | 367 |