Table of Contents
Acknowledgments xi
Foreword Gregory S. Goodman 1
Preface 3
Part I History of the Hmong People
1 Brief History of the Hmong 9
Introduction 9
Hmong Origins 9
The Hmong and the Miao 12
The Hmong Prior to the Imperial Xia 13
The Hmong and ChiYou 14
The Hmong and the San Miao 15
The Hmong and Chinese Dynasties 16
Hmong Settlement in Indochina 27
The Hmong and French Colonial Policy 30
The Hmong and the Japanese War 36
The Hmong and the French War 36
The Hmong and the American Secret War 38
Summing Up 43
2 The Hmong Refugees in Diaspora 45
Introduction 45
The Final Rescue 45
Staying Under the Communist Regime 47
Fleeing the Communist Regime 50
Crossing the Mekong River 52
Childhood Memories 54
Two Case Studies of Hmong Families 60
The Refugee Camps 64
Coming to the West 66
Second Migration in the West 70
Summing Up 73
3 The Hmong Today 75
Introduction 75
Identifying Today's Hmong 75
Impact of Wars on the Hmong 79
Hmong in Western Nations 80
Hmong in Eastern Countries 83
Hmong Adjustment to Resettlement 86
Hmong Today and Beyond 91
Summing Up 101
Part II Hmong Culture and Traditions in the West
4 Hmong Family Structure 103
Introduction 103
Family Composition 103
Hmong Marriage 105
Family Roles 107
Socioeconomic Status 109
Hmong Parents and Their Children 110
Motherhood, Fatherhood and Childhood 116
Hmong Social Norms 121
Family Religions 129
Summing Up 131
5 Hmong Cultural Values and Customs 132
Introduction 132
Values, Norms, and Customs 132
The Patriarchal System 133
Family Ancestral Origins 135
Hmong Clans 138
Hmong Ecological System 140
Respecting Parents and Elders 140
Hmong Social Behaviors 141
Hmong Humility and Proper Manners 143
Hmong Kinship and Relatives 144
Hmong Social Greetings 146
Hmong Hospitality 147
Hmong Courtship and Dating in the U.S. 149
Roles of Daughters-in-Law 150
Roles of Sons-in-Law 151
Hmong Dining Etiquette 151
Hmong Social Drinking 153
Hmong Cultural Maintenance 155
Summing Up 156
6 Hmong Traditions and Religious Practices 157
Introduction 157
Belief Systems 157
Traditional New Year's Celebrations 160
New Year Kowtowing Tradition 163
Hmong New Year in the West 164
Traditional Religious Practices 165
Seldom-Used Rituals and Antiquated Practices 177
Old Rituals and Practices 177
New Crop Rituals 179
Name Changing Ritual 180
Household Spirits 183
Home Restriction Ritual 184
Maternity and Postpartum Practices 185
Superstitions and Taboos 186
Summing Up 189
7 Hmong Marriage and Wedding Practices 190
Introduction 190
Origins 190
Variations in Marital Practices 191
Marital Restrictions and Taboos 192
Honoring Traditions Honors Families 193
The Right Time for Marriage 194
Types of Marriages 195
Types of Weddings 198
Marital Notification 200
Bride Price and Dowry 201
Marital Kowtowing Customs 203
Marital Food Basket 205
Marital Umbrella 206
Wedding Songs 206
Marital Manners and Conduct 208
Common Marital Penalties 209
Marital Crews 209
Drinking Formalities 211
Wedding Progression 212
Polygamy Ls Not a Hmong Tradition 219
Summing Up 220
8 Hmong Funeral Services and Practices 221
Introduction 221
Origins of Funeral Practices 221
Birth and Predestination 223
Concepts of Heaven and Hell 225
Hmong Response to Death 226
Funeral Service Expenses 227
Funeral Service Preparation 229
Sacrificial Animals 232
Death Chants and Songs 234
Funeral Instruments 235
The Days of the Funeral Service 237
Soul Release Ritual 248
Summing Up 250
Part III Hmong Oral Traditions and Written Languages
9 Hmong Oral Traditions 251
Introduction 251
Hmong Languages in Colors 251
History of Hmong Oral Languages 252
Hmong Language Learning 253
Hmong Oral Tradition 254
Hidden Stories in Pa Ndau 268
History of Wars 271
Emphasis on Oral Language Skills 281
Oral Language Competency 282
Summing Up 285
10 Hmong Linguistics and Writing Systems 286
Introduction 286
Origin of Hmong Languages 286
Roots of Hmong Written Language 288
Hmong Written Languages Today 291
Changing Usage and Unified Language 294
Hmong Grammar and Subsystems 297
Summing Up 312
Part IV Hmong Challenges, Opportunities and Successes
11 Hmong in Public Education 315
Introduction 315
Hmong Perceptions of U.S. Education 316
U.S. Educators' Perceptions of Hmong Students 317
Socioeconomic Disadvantage and Academic Performance 321
School Practices and Academic Performance 322
Hmong Parents and Children's Academic Performance 324
Gender and Educational Opportunity 326
Parental Support and Academic Performance 327
Socioeconomic Status and Academic Performance 329
Place of Birth and Academic Performance 330
Hmong Primary Language-Issues 332
Age and English Language Learning 334
Residency and Academic Achievement 335
Hmong Academic Progress in the U.S. 336
Hmong School Dropout 343
Future Trends 344
Suggestions for Future Studies on Hmong Students 346
Summing Up 348
12 The State of the Hmong Community 349
Introduction 349
Hmong Community Structure Prior to Living in the West 349
Western Hmong Community Establishment 352
Hmong Community Social Structure 354
The U.S. Hmong Population 361
Hmong Citizenship and Naturalization 363
Ages of Hmong Americans 363
Hmong Refugees with Disabilities 366
Hmong Healthcare 369
Hmong Employment and Occupations 371
Hmong Family Income 374
Hmong Refugees Living in Poverty 375
Hmong Home Ownership 375
Hmong Household and Marital Status 377
Hmong Social Media 379
Summing Up 380
Part V Hmong Leadership and the Journey Forward
13 Hmong Leaders and Leadership 383
Introduction 383
Hmong Leaders in China 383
Hmong Leaders in Laos 386
Lo Blia Yao 394
Touby Lyfong 396
General Vang Pao 397
Hmong Leaders in the West 402
Why No Successor Named 407
Hmong Need New Leaders 408
Educated and Elected Hmong Individuals 415
The Next Hmong Leaders 416
Summing Up 418
14 The Hmong Journey Forward 419
Introduction 419
Hmong and Their Community 420
Hmong and Their Cultural Heritage 435
Hmong and Their Children's Education 444
Hmong and Their Physical and Spiritual Health 446
Hmong and Their Transnational Politics 449
Hmong and Their Formidable Future 451
Summing Up 453
Bibliography 455
Index 459