Green Berets in the Vanguard: Inside Special Forces, 1953-1963
168
Green Berets in the Vanguard: Inside Special Forces, 1953-1963
168eBookDigital Only (Digital Only)
Available on Compatible NOOK devices, the free NOOK App and in My Digital Library.
Related collections and offers
Overview
Archer participated in some of the earliest forays into Laos, long before Southeast Asia was in American headlines, and he was a member of the first U.S. unit to go into Vietnam. He trained the first Special Forces teams of the South Vietnamese army and participated in some of their earliest operations, many of them unknown until now because of their highly classified nature. He saved the lives of the first American and Vietnamese soldiers injured in war and also witnessed the first American combat death in Vietnam, holding the man in his arms as he died. His unit operated alongside the Central Intelligence Agency and helped influence American foreign policy. A self-described soldier-teacher, he developed and spread the early gospel of special warfare while serving in the Philippines, Hawaii, Korea, Taiwan, and Panama, as well as in Southeast Asia. All of these activities are fully chronicled in this book, but Archer's perspective as an African American in an elite unit of the U.S. armed forces in the 1950s gives his memoir additional depth and insight. It is an uplifting--though sometimes harrowing--story of struggle in unfamiliar environments and an eye-opening account of events little known today.
Product Details
| ISBN-13: | 9781682473511 |
|---|---|
| Publisher: | Naval Institute Press |
| Publication date: | 09/15/2018 |
| Sold by: | Barnes & Noble |
| Format: | eBook |
| Pages: | 168 |
| File size: | 5 MB |
About the Author
Read an Excerpt
Chapter One
ASSIGNED TO SPECIAL FORCES, AIRBORNE
I remember a feeling of excitement, awe, and anticipation on that bright morning in 1952. I was about to start my first six months at the Psychological Warfare Center, at Fort Bragg, home of the U.S. Army Special Forces. My home would be the eternally dingy military barracks in Smoke Bomb Hill, set in the beauty of North Carolina's fields, streams, and pines.
Special Forces was a new unit that had everybody at Fort Bragg raving. It was the one I had read and heard so much about. To tell the truth, though, I did not have a clue about what was going to happen next.
My current assignment was as a non-jumper or "leg" field first sergeant—sort of an assistant first sergeant, since there were no E-8s or E-9s at the time—with headquarters and Headquarters Company. My ultimate intention at this point was to become jump qualified and a full-fledged operational member of the Special Forces.
The men in my group-less than a dozen of us—stood at the beginning of an exceptional journey. Some of us would assume permanent Special Forces maintenance duties; others, administrative positions that supported Special Forces-type operations. Although uncertain about exactly what we would encounter, we all knew that Fort Bragg was something special.
None of us understood the magnitude of the effort for which we were preparing. We would be executing paramilitary operations in enemy-held and -controlled areas around the world. We were about to immerse ourselvesin guerrilla warfare, escape and evasion, subversion, and sabotage, involving operations described as "low-visibility, surreptitious, or clandestine." We would be serving as the nucleus of the United States Special Forces and as the de facto trainers of the Special Forces of the Thai, Laotian, Korean, Chinese, Filipino, and Vietnamese armies.
As a result of our teaching, national counterinsurgency forces would learn how to penetrate and isolate enemy bases, disrupt lines of communication, attack hidden logistical support bases, gather intelligence, and perform numerous other operations. The Minox camera for gathering intelligence and the stiletto as a weapon would become essential parts of our standard operating gear. (It would be our headgear, though, that marked us as extraordinary soldiers.)
Moreover, none of us knew that we would be among the first units of a new kind of unconventional warrior. Nor did we realize that our performance in unconventional warfare would influence top-level decisions regarding foreign policy and other international matters.
I certainly did not have the faintest notion that my military future would become inextricably intertwined with the 77th Group, in which I would play a variety of roles, including trainer, medic, and cadre. Although my Air Force career had already taken me to Okinawa (twice) and the Philippines, with Special Forces I would travel farther—professionally, emotionally, and spiritually—than I could have imagined that day in 1952. I would even assist in designing the first Special Forces patch and help make that distinctive headgear our signature. None of us could have known that, before it was all over, my group would become part of the history of Southeast Asia. I was good at what I did and ready for anything, or I wouldn't have been there, but my crystal ball was no better than anybody else's.
Amazingly, we eventually came to redefine the concepts of warfare in our times. We would become the legendary Green Berets.
The First Special Forces Commander
Col. Aaron S. Bank, a former Jedburgh commander, came from Korea to start the 10th Special Forces at Fort Bragg. Both he and Col. Russell Volckmann, another former OSS operative, envisioned Special Operations as a force multiplier, a bold idea that went counter to conventional concepts. They worked tirelessly to convince the army chiefs, who were unreceptive to unconventional warfare, as to its worth. They insisted that they could provide ideal forces for unconventional harassment and guerrilla tactics, initially targeting Soviet-dominated Europe.
Long before the Korean War, Colonel Bank had championed the idea of a specially trained guerrilla unit within the army. Fortunately, he found an ally in Brig. Gen. Robert McClure, head of the army's psychological warfare staff at the Pentagon. The outbreak of the Korean War further validated Bank's assessment, and Special Forces became part of a unit known as United Nations Partisan Forces Korea (UNPFK).
According to official Green Beret history sources, although 2,300 enlisted men and officers were authorized for the group at Fort Bragg, at the time of Colonel Bank's arrival only one warrant officer and eight enlisted men reported for duty. Eventually, a thousand men joined: combat veterans of World War II and Korea, ex-Rangers, airborne troopers, and former OSS officers—men like Lt. Col. Albert Scott Madding, who played a pivotal role in Special Forces history. Colonel Bank and his staff handpicked these soldiers from across the army, choosing them primarily for their receptiveness to and ability to learn all types of warfare.
One of Colonel Bank's first initiatives was to relocate the Psychological Warfare Center from Fort Riley, Kansas, to Fort Bragg. A number of other Special Forces members, including Colonel Madding and M. Sgt. Francis J. Ruddy, worked with him in this effort. The PWC at Fort Bragg not only offered specialized instruction in all phases of unconventional warfare but also served as an institution of higher learning for the research and conduct of counterinsurgency operations. The center subsequently evolved into the unconventional war headquarters for all United States military counterinsurgency efforts. Thanks to Colonel Bank, innumerable Special Forces operatives have acquired a new hometown in Fort Bragg, North Carolina—from which they have set out to change the course of history.
On the Shoulders of Giants
In our initial orientation, we learned that the traditions of Special Forces dated back to 1942. But even then they were following in historic footprints.
Thus, before we could begin teaching counterinsurgency, we had to learn about the accomplishments of our remote predecessors. We were taught how Rogers's Rangers, named for their commander, Maj. Robert Rogers, stalked the enemy in woods and swamps during the French and Indian War. They were the first of America's unconventional forces.
The U.S. Army-Canadian First Special Services Forces, which originated on 2 July 1942, at Fort William Henry Harrison, Montana, played an activity role in World War II. These units included the British and Canadian Commandos and the Devil's Brigade. Their approach to warfare developed its own momentum as they gained experience, The brigade saw most of its action in Italy and some action in France. Their specialty, close-quarters combat against numerically superior forces, was executed with great expertise and raw power.
We also learned about Darby's Rangers, the first ranger battalion under Maj. William O. Darby, formed on 19 June 1942, in Carrick Fergus, Ireland. The Rangers fought throughout Western Europe but staked their claim to fame when they scaled the cliffs of Pointe du Hoc as part of the D-Day invasion of Normandy. Their philosophy, as my old notes show, was simple: "Shock the enemy with quick strikes and deep thrusts leaving him paralyzed and confused."
In the Pacific, Lt. Gen. Waiter Krueger had established a small elite force that he called the Alamo Scouts, after the historic fort in his hometown of San Antonio, Texas. In their eighty hazardous missions, they never lost a man in action. Perhaps their greatest feat was leading U.S. Rangers and Filipino guerrillas in an attack on a Japanese camp at Cabantuan. They freed all 511 allied prisoners. Although the Scouts never numbered more than seventy volunteers, they earned forty-four Silver Stars, thirty-three Bronze Stars, and four Soldiers Medals by the end of the war.
Besides these exceptional troops, a number of U.S. Army officers conducted guerrilla operations behind Japanese lines in the Philippines. Most notably, Colonel Volckmann escaped from the enemy and formed a Filipino guerrilla band in Northern Luzon that by 1945 consisted of five regiments. In addition, Maj. Wendell Fertig, a reservist, raised his own guerrilla force that ultimately totaled approximately twenty thousand fighters.
"Wild Bill" Donovan and the OSS
Where even the Devil's Brigade and Darby's Rangers never ventured, a team of small parachuting units operated behind enemy lines in World War II, developing a network of contacts, giving instructions to local fighters, and waging guerrilla warfare on the enemy. Known unofficially as the Shadow Warriors, the team was a product of William Donovan, an imposing man-mountain of vision whose propensity for freewheeling activities had earned him the nickname "Wild Bill." His brand of special operations expanded the famous Civil War tactics of the Swamp Fox and Colonel Mosby into new techniques for airborne and guerrilla fighting. (A tough veteran of World War I, Donovan received the Medal of Honor for heroism on the Western Front in October 1918. We were also impressed by the fact that, in civilian life, he made a fortune as a Wall Street lawyer during the 1920s and 1930s.)
When World War II threatened to engulf the United States, Donovan convinced President Franklin D. Roosevelt of the need for a new type of organization, one that was capable of collecting intelligence and waging secret operations behind enemy lines. In 1941, President Roosevelt directed him to form an agency called the Coordinator of Intelligence (COI); and Donovan, who had been a civilian since World War I, became a colonel. Under his command, the agency blossomed quickly, forming operational sites in England, North America, India, Africa, Burma, and China. In 1942 it was renamed the Office of Strategic Services (OSS).
After the war, President Harry S. Truman disbanded the OSS, but not before its functions had achieved institutional status. Its awesome body of intelligence and operations experience, and a nucleus of experienced personnel, evolved into the Central Intelligence Agency on 18 September 1947.
Special Operations and Special Forces followed the OSS's guerrilla operatives as the United States faced yet another conflict, in Korea. In fact, Colonel Madding, commander of Special Forces when I arrived at Fort Bragg, had served with the CIA during the Korean War. He also served in World War II as a member of Merrill's Marauders of Burma, the title given to Col. Frank D. Merrill's 5307 Composite Unit. Colonel Madding told us in detail about many of his exploits.
The Marauders' three-thousand-man force staked out a piece of the Burmese jungle and dared the Japanese to challenge it. The Japanese accepted the challenge and lost to the Marauders in five major battles and seventeen skirmishes. However, the Marauders' greatest feat—the one that inspired us twenty or more years later, as we sloshed through the Asian jungles—was their miles-long march through the thick Burmese foliage en route to capturing an airfield at Myitkyina.
We spent many hours watching movies, discussing, and reading books about these legendary soldiers. We felt proud to have one of them, Colonel Madding, in our midst and honored to be continuing their legacy.
By now we understood that, for the U.S. Army, special operations were not new, and as trainers, we had to make sure that all upcoming trainees fully appreciated the courage and sacrifice of our predecessors. We truly were standing on the shoulders of giants. It was a place that I recognized, remembering my family's history and its perseverance in the face of adversity.
Armed with such inspiration, we of the 10th and 77th Special Forces developed a passion to capture the spirit and character of our predecessors and recreate it in our own times. Throughout the 1950s and early 1960s, with the evolution of the 10th, 77th, and 1st Special Forces Groups and the 14th Operational Detachment, we strove to pattern ourselves on those skilled and courageous men.
We soon realized, though, that our knowledge of actual operations was sketchy at best. The more we heard about our predecessors, the more we began to wonder how their exploits were accomplished. Certainly the essence of Special Forces was to meet the real and present challenge, to adapt to changing circumstances. Then we heard that Mao Tse-tung, first chairman of the People's Republic of China, had developed a new and shrewd brand of warfare that would require us to formulate innovative ways to cope with it—a rumor that proved to be true.
Another persistent rumor was that we were intended to build a Special Operations force that would work in conjunction with other nations' conventional armies. This rumor also proved to be substantially true. Still another rumor concerned the nature of guerrilla warfare itself. Guerrilla tactics, we understood, used subversives, insurgents, and assassins and fought primarily by ambush rather than traditional combat, and by infiltration rather than man-to-man combat. That is, we would be learning how to teach operatives to defeat enemy forces by eroding and exhausting them. However, it soon became clear that that rumor was only half right. There would be situations where it was mandatory to engage the enemy directly.
As rumors crystallized into common knowledge, we realized that in Special Forces we were conceived as multipliers and teachers first but would be expected to fight—ferociously and ingeniously—when necessary and be ready to serve at any moment and in any place.
As multipliers, we would be sent to train one basic unit, the battalion, in a given country for periods of six months. In a type of pyramid effect, that battalion would in turn train another. In other words, the training would "multiply" throughout the country's defense organizations.
Because the decision makers in Washington were not entirely sold on the proposed unconventional approach to warfare, our senior officers waged tremendous uphill battles to get us accepted as a workable and potentially effective force. Col. Edson D. Raff (who assumed command after Colonel Bank), Colonel Madding, Col. Donald C. O'Rourke, Master Sergeant Ruddy, SFC Fred Williamson, and the rest of us worked hard to get the training programs up and running quickly, so that we would be able to prove our value. Meanwhile, as we trained others, we were training ourselves.
Training the Trainers
The A-team or detachment, which consisted of twelve to fourteen soldiers, was the basic unit of organization and operation for the Special Forces in 1952. A captain commanded the unit, with a lieutenant serving as the executive officer. There were ten enlisted men: one served as team sergeant, making it a traditional A-team. This configuration gave the team true self-sufficiency. We operated much like a family or clan and quickly discovered that a team of well-trained soldiers could live and operate as an independent unit under almost any conditions for indefinite periods.
At the time, an Operations Group was made up of FC (coordinating) detachments consisting of FA-teams with a control or headquarters unit (referred to as the FD-detachment or team) and basic administrative support personnel, less than three hundred men in all. (Now the count is around a thousand, with three battalions, a headquarters element, and a support organization.) The administrative team members were not, as my notes record it, an active part of operations. They did not deploy overseas in operational activities nor could they belong to functional teams elsewhere, although it was possible for them to join an operations team if selected and then qualified by training. (It appears that the designations FA, FC, FD, and other team classifications simply evolved into new and different meanings as we went along.)
During these early years, Special Forces enlisted personnel trained in five military occupational specialties. They included American and foreign weaponry, medical techniques, basic field and combat construction, radio and advanced communications, and intelligence gathering. These specialties encompassed all aspects of national and international warfare.
In training periods, we worked on becoming the specialized cadre for training allied militias in every military field, from basic weaponry to airborne operations. We trained primarily to form and lead resistance movements throughout any dominated region and to use unconventional techniques in case of total war.
By 1955, more than two years into our Special Forces training, we saw ourselves as a "new face of war."
We trained in twelve-member teams, and all team members were required to be cross-trained. Training activities took place throughout the world. In the United States, for a couple of months we trained in warfare techniques at Fort Bragg and Camp McCall, both in North Carolina. At Camp McCall, we spent some time on cold-weather maneuvers. However, the majority of cold-weather training was at the Mountain and Cold Weather Training Center high in the mountains surrounding Camps Hale and Carson, Colorado. At these bases, we learned the art of cross-country skiing and hiking in snow, and with this, we acquired high-altitude endurance. We also trained at the Wind River Indian Reservation in the Grand Tetons, Wyoming. Jungle warfare training was conducted in Panama.
In the Virgin Islands, we trained in scuba diving and underwater demolition, while the swamps near Camp Lejeune, North Carolina, served as the sites of numerous training exercises. Amphibious training, conducted several times a year at the Little Creek Amphibious Center base in Norfolk, Virginia, included beach landings, troop carrier, and submarine exercises. Here we were required to live on subs (a nightmare for me) and to undergo high-speed transport familiarization.
An early test of physical fitness was a two-mile, fifteen-minute run in heavy combat boots that truly bedeviled me at first. Later on it would look like a stroll in the park. As breathtakingly excruciating as our training was, as we pushed ourselves to the brink of exhaustion, we must have sensed what our leaders already knew: Under such circumstances our true characters would manifest. Those constant trials and tribulations were intended to test our endurance by breaking down our natural defenses. Qualifying for the Special Forces meant coping with unpredictable changes, against a daily routine of ever-lengthening cross-country treks, progressively heavier packs, and less and less sleep.
The magic number of weeks was fifty-two, the official qualifying period at the time. However, the torment was extended an additional week with a hundred-mile cross-country trek to Fort Bragg from Camp Lejeune, North Carolina. This was a five-day trip that I remember well.
During the week before the hike back to camp, we had completed a brutal survival exercise. Because of the dangerous circumstances, we trained in two-man teams. Devoid of food, shelter, or any of the other common necessities, this "staying alive" activity closely simulated the realities of the areas to which we would be deployed. Our only tools were a bayonet, a utility knife, and our wits. At times, I almost passed out from hunger, but overall I did all right—but even now, looking back, I do not understand how. As we sometimes say in the South, I "made do."
For the most part, we could only trap wild game, such as birds, snakes, fish, and rabbits, which became staples in our diet. We were instructed not to use our weapons, presumably to avoid shooting accidents, because even blanks—all we had in the way of ammunition—can kill within a certain range. (We did fire blanks into fishing coves on creeks and riverbanks. The repercussions from the discharge of the weapons stunned the fish, causing them to float to the top.) When available, we supplemented our diet of wild game and fish with mussels and clams. In addition, unofficially it was permissible to "borrow" chickens from farms. We "borrowed" quite a few.
During these maneuvers, we came upon an old deserted barn and farmhouse. Inside the house, we found old cornmeal grits, probably left there for years, that we soaked, made palatable with salt and pepper, and cooked. It was especially a treat for me, being from the South where grits is a food staple, although everybody ate heartily.
On the hundred-mile trek back to Fort Bragg from Camp Lejeune, we got two hot meals a day (all we wanted to eat) and the hope of being able to rest upon reaching our destination. An ambulance was on call during the entire trip. After almost a month of living off the land, I had lost all excess body fat; only thoughts of food and rest kept me going as we made our way back.
Throughout the training, the evaluation process continued to reveal those among us who could or could not fit into the Special Forces mold. Naturally, we assumed that some of us would fail-an assumption that proved to be accurate. Based upon evaluations from the training officers, senior NCOS, and other personnel who supervised, supported, or assisted us, a final evaluation board determined who would graduate. As well-trained conventional soldiers, we were also an active part of this evaluation and the special training of each other.
Among other items, these reports indicated trainees' attitude, ingenuity, knowledge, relationships with fellow team members, interactions with members of the training team, physical and mental health, and elation and enthusiasm for the training. In other words, the portfolio presented a comprehensive assessment of trainees' potential effectiveness for future missions in foreign countries. Slightly more than three-fourths of us completed the course. A close friend of mine washed out during the last week. I was more than surprised—no, delighted—to be among the survivors.
Nevertheless, the training did not end with the completion of these initial qualifications tests. Months of grueling field exercises were followed by extensive training in every kind of weapon and equipment imaginable. We trained in the proper use of 22-caliber, silencer-equipped pistols and a variety of grappling and rappelling gear. (So-called action movies have educated most civilians about how such equipment was intended to be used.)
Then, there were the "top secret" weapons handling and briefings sessions. Since we had to wear complete protective gear, we assumed the worst—possibly nuclear contamination—because by this time (1954) the wars of "national liberation" and the "liberation fronts" were in the common vocabulary. The French and the communists even referred to a third world war as a "revolutionary war." Although we were reluctant to use such terminology, the United States was also preoccupied with the threat of another world war and a potential nuclear holocaust.
International tensions about nuclear war proved to have a chilling effect on those of us who had made the grade. I began to wonder what I was doing there, because if nuclear war did break out, we would be training guerrilla fighters behind the lines. What would guerrilla warfare look like in the nuclear age? At Fort Bragg, many of us believed that we would prepare nuclear weapons to detonate after we left a country. I did not know exactly what to expect.
Meanwhile, since I didn't know whether or not I was training with real weapons, I assumed that the weapons we handled were radioactive. I also did not know what the effects of exposure to these weapons would be if this proved to be true. We all understood the predictable effects of a nuclear explosion near us, but what of mere contact in the field? Of the original sixteen members of 14th Detachment, three eventually succumbed to cancer. Exposed to radioactivity? It could be a normal statistic, but it still haunts me.
A combination of classroom instruction and practical application was a vital part of preparation for any mission. This was especially true for raid and ambush training. First, we spent an hour or so in the classroom; then, we went outside to rehearse what we learned. Usually an old building served as the objective. We would form one behind the other, usually from a ditch just out of sight, and rush the target.
I remember these drills as if they happened yesterday. A senior NCO acted as an enemy soldier lying face down on the ground. The storming team members ran to him and one trooper covered him while another team member turned him over to search for weapons. Simultaneously, a senior NCO or training officer would typically say, "Archer, we've got a problem." It was then incumbent upon me to use prior experiences and training to take whatever action was appropriate to ensure the mission's success. Somehow, I usually took the right action.
(Continues...)
Table of Contents
| Preface | ix | |
| Acknowledgments | xiii | |
| 1 | Assigned to Special Forces, Airborne | 1 |
| 2 | Hawaii, 1956: Prelude to Southeast Asia | 26 |
| 3 | Thailand, 1956 | 35 |
| 4 | Taiwan, 1957 | 57 |
| 5 | Vietnam, 1957 | 66 |
| 6 | Okinawa, 1958 | 79 |
| 7 | Laos, 1959: Mission Hotfoot | 88 |
| 8 | Laos, 1961: Mission White Star | 114 |
| Epilogue | 131 |