- • Ways a realistic and practical carbon dioxide index for ships can be established
- • How much pollution commercial ships cause
- • How safety concerns and other variables affect ship design
- • What new designs could mean for the environment
- • Ways a realistic and practical carbon dioxide index for ships can be established
- • How much pollution commercial ships cause
- • How safety concerns and other variables affect ship design
- • What new designs could mean for the environment
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Overview
- • Ways a realistic and practical carbon dioxide index for ships can be established
- • How much pollution commercial ships cause
- • How safety concerns and other variables affect ship design
- • What new designs could mean for the environment
Product Details
| ISBN-13: | 9781450244169 |
|---|---|
| Publisher: | iUniverse, Incorporated |
| Publication date: | 10/01/2010 |
| Sold by: | Barnes & Noble |
| Format: | eBook |
| File size: | 3 MB |
Read an Excerpt
Global Climate Change and the Shipping Industry
By Andrew G. Spyrou
iUniverse, Inc.
Copyright © 2010 Andrew G. SpyrouAll right reserved.
ISBN: 978-1-4502-4415-2
Chapter One
Global Climate Change and the Environment
Global climate is universal for all nations on Earth. A problem as complex as global climate change cannot be solved by any single branch of science, especially as it would appear that international institutions have been structured for the world as it was rather than as it is today.
In assessing global climate change, scientists try to find trends over periods of many years. They have concluded that parts of Alaska were 5 to 6 degrees Celsius warmer in the summer of 2008 than in previous years, after studying the various manifestations of global climate change, such as icecap melting and rising sea levels. Scientists call this phenomenon Arctic Amplification; the Arctic is warming faster than predicted, and the rate of warming there is accelerating faster than the rate of warming anywhere else.
An analysis of a stalagmite obtained from north-western China was published in the 7 November 2008 edition of Science magazine. The stalagmite, composed of calcium carbonate leached from dripping water, preserved a record of rainfall in that region of China throughout the years of the stalagmite's formation. It shows, in part, that the vital rains of the Asian monsoon were once affected by a change in climate, causing disastrous harvests that brought famine to China in the late ninth century and ultimately ending the three-century rule of the Tang Dynasty.
In April 2007, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) put together research from nearly one thousand scientists from seventy-four countries around the world and issued its long-awaited report. The study found that global warming was already affecting the Earth's ecosystems and was likely to lead to more severe and widespread drought as well as greater coastal and riverine flooding.
Human-induced global climate change is the result of fossil fuel combustion, which damages global atmospheric conditions in ways that affect nearly all ecosystems, and, inevitably, human beings. The urgent question now is: what can be done about global climate change? This is an ethical question, requiring us to make ethical judgements; humanity has to weigh its own prosperity against the chance that global climate change will diminish the well-being of future generations. Today, the consensus on global warming is that refusal by the United States to take the international lead on the 'green debate' has been an unfortunate decision.
As the environment becomes increasingly important, global climate change is an issue that raises fundamental questions about the relationships between industry and society and between one generation and the next. Of course, it also raises questions about costs. To some, the costs of taking action could be enormous and could threaten growth. On the other hand, the costs of doing nothing now could be far greater, given the risk of what we may need to do in the future if the evidence supporting global climate change becomes overwhelming.
Science, Scientists, and Global Climate Change
Science is defined as the systematic study of the nature and behaviour of the material and physical universe based on observations, experiments, and measurements, and the formulation of laws to describe these facts in general terms. Science is therefore about the results of experiments, not about ultimate reality. A scientist is a person who studies or practices any of the sciences or who uses scientific methods. Most scientists support the view that science is a profoundly optimistic pursuit, that the world we live in can be understood by gathering evidence, and that this effort will ultimately be of benefit to society.
The problem is that all scientists — even the most objective ones — inevitably hold social, political, and ideological beliefs that could potentially slant their interpretations of the data on a project. For a layman, it is difficult, if not impossible, to determine whether a scientist's claim is legitimate or phony. Is the claimant providing an explanation for the observed phenomena, or is he or she merely denying the existing explanations? Especially today, there is shouting from two sides: those who believe global climate change is a human-caused catastrophe and those who think it is a hoax. Many environmental companies, whose purpose is to protect the environment, have portrayed the growing human influence on the climate as an unfolding disaster while others, such as energy companies or those with industrial concerns, have countered that human-driven warming of the environment is either inconsequential, unproven, or a manufactured crisis. At a three-day conference titled 'The Flight From Science and Reason', held by the New York Academy of Sciences in June 1995, it was mentioned: 'although fraud exist[s], it [is] not nearly as common as critics of science contend'.
Science is a celebration of the human spirit. It has revolutionized human life both intellectually and practically. The scientifically inspired Industrial Revolution has brought about the greatest improvement in the human condition since the invention of agriculture in the Neolithic era around 4000 to 2400 BC. Should today's efforts to go to Mars and beyond be criticized or admired? Only time will tell.
The Debate on Global Climate Change and the Alleged 'Climategate' Scandal
The feeling among sceptics on global climate change is that because the science has not been definitively settled, you cannot issue an authoritative statement on global climate change.
There are allegations that scientists have been 'massaging' global climate data—falsifying and concealing information—which undermines academic standards. This alleged scandal has tarnished the credibility of the science, which currently argues that human activity is at the root of global climate change. The affair has been exacerbated by the controversy surrounding the IPCC's landmark 2007 report, which included comments about the rate of the Himalayan glacier melt.
The United Kingdom's University of East Anglia decided to reassess the scientific output of the university's research unit with the assistance of the Royal Academy of Science. A separate panel, chaired by the recently retired vice-chancellor of Glasgow University, Sir Muir Russell, will investigate the university's Climate Research Unit. It is imperative that confidence is restored in the science behind global climate change.
The Copenhagen Conference in December 2009
Fifty thousand participants, including world leaders from Australia, Brazil, France, Germany, Indonesia, Japan, Spain, United Kingdom, and the United States, attended the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference at Copenhagen in Denmark. The end result of the conference was 'a statement of good intentions, which binds its signatories to no specific actions'. Without unanimous support for action on climate change, this sentiment has no status within the United Nations system. The result is a clear indication that global cooperation on the topic of climate change is lacking.
An important consideration discussed at this conference was how to monitor and verify compliance with any treaty that came out of the talks. The United States insisted that without stringent verification of China's actions, they could not consider any deal. This complicated the proceedings, because the Chinese representative stated that they would not accept any outside monitoring to ensure they were indeed making the changes necessary to fulfil their promises to reduce emissions of C[O.sub.2] and other pollutants. Chinese authorities maintained that their laws would guarantee compliance as 'a matter of principle'.
In view of such attitudes by China, the United States is unlikely to approve a tough new domestic climate change regime going forward. The feeling in the United States is that if China or any other country wanted to be a full partner in global climate change efforts, then that country would have to commit to transparency and review of their emissions-reducing efforts.
As the dispute between China and the United States was taking place, a group of poor nations threw the conference off track with a public protest. They complained that the developed countries were doing too little to curb their own emissions, at the same time consigning the poor countries to perpetual poverty. Responsible representatives at the conference acknowledged that in any complicated negotiations such as these, things never go smoothly. The Copenhagen Conference was no exception; it was considered one of the biggest and most complicated conferences in history.
Financial support from developed countries to developing countries has long been regarded as one of the elements that were essential for a deal to be brokered at the Copenhagen Conference. The aim of the conference was to limit global warming to an increase of no more than 2 degrees Celsius above so-called pre-industrial levels. While that goal is in line with scientific advice, some nations lobbied for an agreement that would limit global temperature increases to no more than 1 degree Celsius.
The conference's president, Connie Hedegaard of Denmark, characterized the behaviour of some of the delegates at this conference as 'inappropriate'. When optimists looked ahead to this conference, they envisioned a grand bargain between developed and developing nations. However, the behaviour of some delegates was not conducive to achieving the best and most durable deal. Participants knew it would be extremely difficult to reach accord, because China, India, Brazil, and South Africa insisted on deep cuts from developed countries, but they offered few concessions of their own.
Considering that world population continues to rise by 79 million each year, the world population is estimated to become 9.2 billion by 2050 (US Census Bureau, www.census.gov). Technological advances in resource saving will hopefully prevent shortages in food, water, and energy and allow the world's entire population to enjoy a reasonable and good life. But to ensure that shortages do not occur, politicians must recognize the importance of a sustainable growth strategy in alternative sources of energy.
Optimism Among Global Climate Experts
Global warming is today the subject of intense debate, and while the evidence for climate change is overwhelming, there are sceptics who challenge the view that global warming is caused by human activity, and they have termed the debate pseudoscientific propaganda. They point out that there is the tendency today towards political polarization within the scientific community.
There seems to be optimism among many climate experts because they have seen an explosion of awareness regarding climate change among the public the world over. This is considered a move in the right direction. The feeling is that more and more people are beginning to understand the urgency of the situation, and some action is being taken. This is a relief, because new technology is needed—as well as a great deal of creativity and imagination—to tackle the problem at hand. Mankind has always responded to great challenges with ingenuity and optimism, and the present generation should be no exception.
Food Production and World Population
According to the US Department of Agriculture, world population is currently approaching 7 billion. In 2010, the most populous countries are China, with 1.33 billion residents; India, 1.17 billion; and the United States, 380 million.
Some experts feel that the growing population may be a problem. They wonder whether food shortages could bring down our civilization, as there is a limit to the population of humans planet Earth can support. Sooner or later, that limit will be reached, and the natural world will step in to make a major correction through famine, disease, and the resulting conflicts.
Quoting a United Nations report, animal grain yields are up 40 per cent during the past fifty years. In the United States, crop yields average about ten tons per hectare as a result of mechanization, fertilizers, pesticides, as well as genetically modified seeds and improved irrigation methods. Against that, the comparable figure for all of Asia and Latin America is only approximately three tons per hectare. This leaves enormous potential for additional increases in global agricultural output. It would appear that it is a question of how—and who—will develop the vast potential of food production worldwide.
Change in Global Climate
Carbon dioxide and other gases, such as methane, trap solar energy and prevent planet Earth from becoming an ice ball. Over millions of years, concentrations of these gases have been far higher than levels during mankind's short existence.
Geologists have the tools and ability to see into the distant past and discern the slow movements of land masses on planet Earth. Recently, geologists in the United States have predicted what planet Earth will look like 250 million years from now. In 50 million years, Africa will have drifted to the north, joining the European continent by fusing of the two landmasses, eliminating the Mediterranean Sea. They also point out that 75 million years from now, Australia will have moved north to join Indonesia and Malaysia. In 200 million years, Newfoundland will have joined Africa, and by 250 million years from now, all the continents will have merged into a new supercontinent. The new name that scientists have given this far-future planet Earth is Pangeo Ultima —Greek for Total Earth.
Recent research by Henrik Svensmark, head of the Danish National Space Center, points out a very plausible cause of recent warming trends. In a series of experiments on the formation of clouds, Danish scientists have shown that fluctuations in the sun's output cause the observed changes in the Earth's temperature. This means that human activities are not to blame for the increase in temperature and that there is absolutely nothing we can do to correct the situation.
Such presentations make it difficult for the public to decide how far science can be trusted to provide objective and unbiased knowledge. An article published in 2005 by the UK newspaper The Guardian states, 'According to opinion polls, people don't trust scientists. The only scientists they do believe are those working for environmental causes. But the public has got it wrong. Scientists can produce terrible science out of the best motives, and vice versa.'
Those responsible for the disinformation campaign on global climate change are considered 'organized sceptics' and are positioned as principal negotiators in international forums, with the aim of preventing agreement on a worldwide response to global climate change. The misconception that there is disagreement among scientists regarding global climate change has been fostered by special-interest groups to prevent the implementation of any policies that would interfere with their current business plans—which rely on the massive, unrestrained discharge of gases that pollute the atmosphere. The disinformation campaign has been aiming to reposition global climate change as a theory, rather than fact.
It is recognized that the United States remains one of the biggest contributors to the world's emissions. For some time, American scientists have been warning that the risk of 'extreme weather events' will probably increase as a result of global climate change. On the other hand, the former chairman of the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works, Jim Inhofe, described global warming as 'the second-largest hoax ever played on the American people, after separation of church and state' (Pierce). Yet the general feeling is that developed nations have a moral responsibility to do something about the damage we are causing to the environment. If our society values the world as it is, a serious and sustained effort must be made now to reduce the use of fossil fuels that affect the environment. It would appear that America is now gradually shifting to the view that freakish weather is proof that climate change is really taking place—a view that has been evident in Europe and Japan for some time. In fact, on 31 May 2007 the US government officially recognized the need for action to protect the environment and is finally, for the first time, setting domestic targets for the reduction of emissions.
A new source of data about the global environment, the Group of Earth Observations, emerged in November 2006. It features a satellite network, known as GEONETCast, which is run by a consortium of the European Organization for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites, the World Meteorological Organization, and the governments of the United States and China.
(Continues...)
Excerpted from Global Climate Change and the Shipping Industry by Andrew G. Spyrou Copyright © 2010 by Andrew G. Spyrou. Excerpted by permission of iUniverse, Inc.. All rights reserved. No part of this excerpt may be reproduced or reprinted without permission in writing from the publisher.
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Table of Contents
Contents
Acknowledgments....................ixCredits....................xi
Prologue....................xiii
Chapter 1 Global Climate Change and the Environment....................3
Chapter 2 The Biosphere and Global Climate Change....................25
Chapter 3 Methane and the Methane Hydrates....................29
Chapter 4 Decarbonizing Planet Earth....................35
Chapter 5 The International Polar Year....................39
Chapter 6 The Debate on Global Warming....................43
Chapter 7 The Environmental Performance Index....................69
Chapter 8 The Energy and World Climate Meeting in Italy....................81
Chapter 9 The Effect of Land, Sea, and Air Transportation on Global Climate....................85
Chapter 10 Global Climate Change and Society's Concerns....................89
Chapter 11 Industrial Emissions and the Kyoto Protocol....................93
Chapter 12 Global Climate Change and Ethical Considerations....................109
Chapter 13 Today's Energy Sources....................113
Chapter 14 Fossil Fuels: Crude Oil, Coal, and Natural Gas....................131
Chapter 15 Biofuels....................145
Chapter 16 Commercial Nuclear Energy....................147
Chapter 17 Nuclear Fission and Fusion....................171
Chapter 18 Energy and the Global Environment....................179
Chapter 19 The Hydrogen-Fuelled Economy....................183
Chapter 20 Global Climate Change and the Shipping Industry....................211
Chapter 21 Atmospheric Pollution by Commercial Ships....................217
Chapter 22 Towards Establishing a Realistic and Practical Carbon Dioxide Index for Commercial Ships....................223
Chapter 23 Onshore Electrical Power for Commercial Ships....................225
Chapter 24 Propulsion Concepts for Reducing Fuel Consumption....................227
Chapter 25 The Eco-Ship and the Marine Environment....................229
Chapter 26 Abnormal Sea Conditions....................237
Chapter 27 Commercial Ships and Safety at Sea....................245
Chapter 28 A Ship's Hull Structure and Hull Strength....................247
Chapter 29 The Safedor: A European-Funded Project....................255
Chapter 30 Global Climate Change and the Naval Architect....................257
Chapter 31 Global Climate Change and Ship Classification....................261
Chapter 32 Designing an Energy-Efficient Commercial Ship....................265
Epilogue....................279
About the Author....................283
References....................287