Gervase Wheeler: A British Architect in America, 1847–1860
136
Gervase Wheeler: A British Architect in America, 1847–1860
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Product Details
| ISBN-13: | 9780819571465 |
|---|---|
| Publisher: | Wesleyan University Press |
| Publication date: | 02/08/2012 |
| Series: | The Driftless Connecticut Series & Garnet Books |
| Sold by: | Barnes & Noble |
| Format: | eBook |
| Pages: | 136 |
| File size: | 5 MB |
| Age Range: | 18 Years |
About the Author
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CHAPTER 1
New York City, 1847
Gervase Wheeler disembarked at New York from the General Victoria out of London on 10 February 1847. The passenger list gives an estimate of his year of birth as 1823 and his age as 24, although the 1881 English census gives his age then as 56 thus making his year of birth 1825 and his age on arrival in the United States 22. According to a list of embarking passengers published in the New York Times for 9 January 1860, he had just left New York for Southampton on the steamship Arago. So we now have the precise limits of his nearly 13-year stay in the New World between the ages of 22 or 24 and 36 or 38. In seeking a foothold in the emerging profession in the new country, he flitted for seven years or so from place to place in New England (and Philadelphia), finally settling in New York City in 1853. During his stay he practiced as artist, architect, and landscape designer, as well as author. He had significant success; he also made some people unhappy.
Within a month of his arrival in New York Wheeler had the good fortune to meet William J. Hoppin, a lawyer and adviser to the Reverend Leonard J. Woods, the president of Bowdoin College in Brunswick, Maine. On 8 March Hoppin wrote to Woods to say that "a young Englishman by the name of Gervase Wheeler was introduced to me the other day. ... As he has but lately arrived [he] has to make a name for himself." Hoppin was well educated, with degrees from Yale, Middlebury, and Harvard, and had been a founder of the Century Club in New York. A frequent traveler to Europe, he eventually resided in London from 1876 to 1886 as secretary of the U.S. Legation. Hoppin's activities indicate that his primary interest was the art world. By 1850 he was a member of the Committee of Management of the American Art Union, and the new editor of the organization's bulletin. He was thus well prepared to judge the newcomer's qualifications. Although there is no documentation to confirm a continued relationship between the two, it is likely that Wheeler cultivated one. He not only began his American sojourn in New York, but later practiced there for over six years.
By April 1847 Wheeler had taken rooms at 29 Greenwich Street in the city. At first, he sought to make a name for himself by turning away from the more practical aspects of engineering and architecture, instead promoting his skills at interior design, particularly in polychrome decoration, skills he must have gained under Carpenter and with an eye on Pugin. In a letter to the Reverend Woods, Richard Upjohn, the English immigrant architect whom Wheeler must have immediately looked up, noted that Wheeler desired "to turn his attention exclusively to decorative art." The 1847 catalogue of an exhibition at the National Academy of Design in New York City includes the following entry for Wheeler: "#371. Section of a Room with Gothic Furniture." As we shall see, his first documented commission was for the interior decoration of the library incorporated within the chapel at Bowdoin College, although much to Upjohn's chagrin, he also tried to meddle in other parts of the building.
During the summer of 1847 Wheeler traveled through New England, particularly Connecticut, perhaps as part of his courting of Catherine, and established a relationship with Henry Austin, a New Haven architect. According to Wheeler, the two were to join in business as of the first of September. In correspondence with Woods at the time, Wheeler implied a certain success in obtaining commissions, as he wrote: "I am happy to say I have so much to do both presently and in future I can afford to undertake a little 'fancy work.'" It is difficult to see now on what he based this optimism. This may have been an artifice for convincing prospective clients, perhaps even himself, of his hoped-for success in America. For having announced a wealth of upcoming work, and an engagement with Austin, he proceeded on a speculative gamble to Brunswick, a commercial, manufacturing, and college town where he remained at least until May of the following year — some ten months. His work there was paid for only sparingly by the client, as he knew it would be.
CHAPTER 2Brunswick, Maine, 1847–1848
LIBRARY DECORATION, BOWDOIN COLLEGE CHAPEL
The "fancy work" mentioned in Wheeler's letter refers to the interior decoration of the Bowdoin Chapel building, and marks another strategy by which Wheeler sought to establish himself in America. In this instance, he offered his services at cost in order to be given the opportunity of proving himself. He agreed to furnish colored drawings for the decoration of the library in the Chapel building, and to supervise their execution, in return for reimbursement of his expenses only.
Reverend Woods oversaw the design and construction of the Chapel. From the outset, the building was to serve the usual religious function, and to contain as well an art gallery, library, and president's office. A theologian and teacher, well read and well traveled, and knowledgeable about the latest European trends in art and architecture, Woods was convinced of the appropriateness of polychrome for the decoration of the Chapel interior.
The contract for the design of the building itself had been awarded to Richard Upjohn, and construction begun in 1845. In response to the multiple uses of the building, Upjohn planned a double-spired design based on the German Rundbogenstil, with a large Romanesque hall flanked by separate art gallery and library, to be constructed of granite quarried locally. As for the interior design, contrary to Wood's own aspirations, Upjohn wanted the walls to be pale, subdued, and without figured polychrome. Woods sought Hoppin's advice on the matter. He hoped to find support for his idea of a colorful interior, and wondered whether it was within the limits of propriety to consult another architect for this aspect of the design. Hoppin, in the letter introducing Wheeler to Woods, confirmed that the newcomer "will materially assist us in our inquiries as to the proper mode of decorating the Chapel at Brunswick. ... He is certain that it [polychrome] will increase rather than diminish the solemnity of the effect of your Chapel." By July, Woods had interviewed and clearly been impressed by Wheeler, particularly as Wheeler favored just that method of decoration that Woods so longed to display at Bowdoin. Upjohn at this time was still being recalcitrant about adopting any coloring for the Chapel, but had agreed to draw up some designs, though Woods considered, on what evidence we do not know, that "nothing ... will come up to the standard of Mr. Wheeler."
Richard Upjohn's English background was in cabinetmaking and carpentry. He arrived in America in 1829 and belonged to an older generation than Wheeler, having progressed from craftsman to architect without the benefit of a formal professional education. At the time of his commission at Bowdoin, he was still trying to establish and define his role as architect with much difficulty in a profession as yet in its infancy. There can be little doubt that he resented the interference of the young newcomer, and perhaps even more the fact that Woods had challenged his authority on the job by seeking outside advice.
Wheeler was very interested in the possibility presented by the President, not only as a step toward establishing a reputation, but as an opportunity to demonstrate the type of architectural decoration then fashionable in England and Europe. As the art historian Kathleen Curran has written, this was an extraordinary undertaking in this time and place, based on London and Munich precedents, by an unproven artist. As a result, Wheeler agreed "in the most generous way" to submit renderings, "and superintend their execution, making no other charge than for his mere expenses." Wheeler's amiability in this exchange had the desired effect; Woods thereafter chose to employ the services of both Upjohn and Wheeler. It was a decision unlikely to produce harmony.
Aware of the potential awkwardness of such a situation, Woods once again appealed to Hoppin for advice. The men agreed that "Mr. U. is so sensitive upon this point that if he should know it was projected, he would throw up the whole affair." Woods wondered whether Wheeler's qualifications vindicated such an intervention:
[H]ow far should we be justified by custom, by common opinion, and strict propriety, in adopting a style of decoration not recommended by the architect? ... [W]ould it be safe for us, if we approved of Mr. Wheeler's designs, and felt authorized to adopt them, to entrust the execution of them to him? His scientific attainments, and his fine taste, cannot be doubted; but has he experience enough to entitle him to perfect confidence in introducing a new style which will be open to every species of criticism?
As a cautionary move, Woods proposed that Wheeler be hired to design the decoration of the library (named Banister Hall in 1850) as an experiment prior to making any decision regarding the Chapel proper.
Hoppin responded to Woods's query by attempting to balance the abilities of each architect against the requirements of the job. He declared that from an ethical standpoint, Upjohn should have the option to submit the first design, but, in the event that the college committee rejected it, another architect's rendering could be adopted. The alternate architect of course would be Wheeler, for Hoppin knew "no other person in the country as competent to carry them out." Woods was sufficiently informed about the profession to question the areas of responsibility subject to an architect's control, and to recognize that the consultation of another architect might be considered a transgression. And in his reply Hoppin admitted being "unable to come to a decision entirely satisfactory to myself." But the hesitation went no further.
By mid-September 1847, Wheeler had met Woods in New York City and together they traveled to Brunswick. The fact that Wheeler took the commission, even on such a tentative program, showed a disregard for the circumstances of his fellow architect. With all due consideration for his own needs, the ease with which he accepted the work, knowing of Upjohn's commitment to the project, reflected a lack of professional deference. In Brunswick Wheeler took up residence in a boarding house run by a Miss Weld at 7 Federal Street on the understanding that he would remain in town some four to six weeks to accomplish his task, now defined as the design of the decoration of the library (Figure 1). In the event that the latter was well received, and pending Upjohn's agreement, he would have the opportunity of focusing on the interior of the Chapel as well.
Wheeler was not content simply to put forth his proposals for decorating the library. He also felt compelled, not always in the most tactful way, to express his views on the work that had already been planned by Upjohn for the Chapel itself. Wheeler regarded uniformity of mode to be extremely important in the overall development of the structure. As Upjohn had designed the chapel in a Romanesque style, Wheeler thought that the detailing throughout should be consistent and of "characteristic ornament." He communicated his reservations about Upjohn's use of Gothic motifs in the interior design to Hoppin who in turn conveyed them to Woods: "Mr. U. has introduced many details in the pointed style and Mr. Wheeler desires you to understand that he should materially vary his designs if any thing besides the Romanesque should be used."
Later remarks by Wheeler expressed more blatantly his disapproval not only of Upjohn's decorative scheme but of his architecture as well. Shortly after his arrival in Brunswick, he wrote that the existing proposals for the Chapel showed a lack of understanding of the principles of honest architecture and "unity of effect," both concepts integral to the ideas of Pugin, Carpenter, and other Gothic revivalists. The construction included "a mass of workmanship useless for purposes of strength" and interior details designed in such a way as insufficiently to "allow of the play of light and shade." Another bold criticism followed closely on the last, this time relative to the architecture of the library. Wheeler submitted remarks on the first of October to the effect that "a very important disadvantage will be found if the work be carried out in the manner there indicated" in Upjohn's drawings. Again, the complaints had mainly to do with the play of light, which was hindered, according to Wheeler, by the heaviness of the balusters and floors of the upper gallery. He went so far as to offer his own services should the committee agree with his assessment.
Such criticism by a young architect of the work of a senior was not only uncommon but also destructive. In Wheeler's case, it may have been a mark of his own self-conscious sense of education and training compared to his American counterparts, including Upjohn. The critique represented a poor sense of ethics and suggests the root of Wheeler's future problems in this country. The unsolicited advice caused dissention and discomfort among members of the committee and, quite naturally, undermined Wheeler's relationship to Upjohn, although the expression of the latter was slow in coming.
While correspondence from Upjohn to Wheeler has not been discovered, a letter written later that month by Wheeler indicates his attempt to reconcile with Upjohn. After providing him with a lengthy description of his design for the library decoration, Wheeler applauded the overall effect of the Chapel and closed with the following paragraph:
I am sure that you will approve of what is being done in the Library and I am equally sure that you will do me the justice to say so, and to acquit me of any intention in this matter to act otherwise than in the most perfect good faith toward yourself.
The episode hints at Wheeler's manipulative character. Having interfered in Upjohn's work, he sought to clear himself by appealing to Upjohn's good nature. How effectively relations were smoothed over remains a question, but Wheeler apparently thought that any unpleasantness had been resolved. In January 1848, he noted, "I am glad that Mr. Upjohn seems amiable and shall be pleased to put myself in communication with him on the subject of the Chapel when the time comes." In later letters to Upjohn, Wheeler mentions the older architect's kindnesses, and this suggests either that the rift between the two at the time Wheeler left Brunswick has been exaggerated or that Wheeler was accomplished at denial. It is difficult to gauge with accuracy the implications of the situation, for while Wheeler appears to have acted aggressively and somewhat dishonestly, general correspondence indicates that Upjohn's dealings with the college were marked by tension as well. Certainly part of the trouble may be attributed to the lingering obstinacy of the client, typical for the period, in his unwillingness to yield full control to the architect.
By October 1847, the work on the polychrome decoration of the library had begun. Later in the month Wheeler submitted a description of his project to Upjohn. Ceiling, walls, hood moulds, arches, and columns were to be covered with decoration in "fresco" (on the plaster) and tempera (on the wood). The scheme was a complex one, and the design was not completed until December. Wheeler described the decoration in detail in a report to the committee: each surface area was treated somewhat differently, but all shared a palette of deep, rich colors: dark red, warm gold, blue, subdued golden brown, and "shades of colour from warm and brightest white and deepest shadow." The interior of the library has since been remodeled, and Wheeler's work has been obscured; though it may still be possible through paint analysis to recapture at least a portion of the polychrome design.
With work under way in the library, Wheeler pursued his campaign of interference in the interior of the Chapel itself. In February 1848 he submitted a proposal to Dr. Woods and the committee. He seems to have been encouraged, as he was engaged to prepare drawings in May. Wheeler did not remain in Brunswick to see that his plans were carried out. During that winter he caused a rift between Woods and himself, the exact nature of which is not clear — the skimpy documentation suggests a combination of a woman (his landlady, Miss Weld) and a loan of money — and no more is heard about Wheeler as decorator in Brunswick after the spring of 1848. He left a poor reputation in the town, with Woods thinking he had misrepresented himself, and as we shall see, this would come back to haunt him.
Construction of the College Chapel took 11 years to complete. In 1851, when Wheeler had left Brunswick and assumed other commissions in Connecticut and Pennsylvania, an article in the Bulletin of the American Art Union reviewed the interior polychrome of Banister Hall. The work was considered "very successful both in form and color," and it was suggested that the designs for the Chapel prepared by Wheeler, if carried out, "would be even more extensively admired." For unknown reasons, his design was never executed.
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Table of Contents
<P>Preface<BR>Introduction<BR>New York City, 1847<BR>Brunswick, Maine, 1847–1848<BR>New Haven, Connecticut, 1847–1849<BR>Hartford, Connecticut, 1849<BR>Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 1849–1850<BR>New York City, 1850–1851<BR>Norwichtown, Connecticut, 1851–1852<BR>New York City, 1853–1860<BR>Epilogue<BR>Appendix: Business and Residential Addresses<BR>Notes<BR>Index</P>What People are Saying About This
“The definitive study of an important figure in the history of American architecture.”
“Gervase Wheeler was a man of considerable talent and even more considerable ambition, as is evident from his thirteen-year sojourn to the United States. Though Wheeler is usually found in the shadow of A. J. Downing, Renée Tribert and James F. O’Gorman have turned a bright spotlight onto him, documenting his peripatetic travels, his significant commissions, and his contretemps with other architects.”