Table of Contents
1 Obtaining Scientific Information 3
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Empirical Science 5
1.3 Deductive Science 19
2 Elements of Scientific Data and Tests of Questions 33
2.1 Kinds of Date 33
2.2 Accuracyand Precision 36
2.3 Frequency Distributions 37
2.4 Descriptive Statistics 40
2.5 Distributions and Transformations of Data 44
2.6 Tests of Hypotheses 47
3 Statistical Analyses 53
3.1 Analysis of Variance 54
3.2 Regression 64
3.3 Correlation 69
3.4 Analysis of Frequencies 73
3.5 Summary of Statistical Analyses 74
3.6 Transformations of Data 76
4 Principles of Research Design 85
4.1 Desirable Properties of Research Design 85
4.2 Design of Treatments 86
4.3 Design of Layout 90
4.4 Response Design 101
4.5 Sensible Experimental Design 103
5 Communication of Scientific Information: Writing 107
5.1 The Matter of Publication 107
5.2 The Matter of Which Language to Use 112
5.3 Writing Scientific English 118
6 Communicating Scientific Information: The Scientific Paper 139
6.1 Organization of a Scientific Paper 139
6.2 The Life History of a Scientific Paper 150
6.3 Scientific Papers: Important and Changing 159
7 Other Means of Scientific Communication 163
7.1 The Scientific Talk 163
7.2 The Poster Presentation 171
7.3 The Proposal 174
8 Presenting Data in Tables 187
8.1 Why Show Data in Tables? 187
8.2 The Elements of Tables 190
8.3 Layout of Tables 193
8.4 Tables That Need Not Be Tables 195
9 Presenting Data in Figures 199
9.1 Graphical Perception 204
9.2 Types of Figures 205
9.3 Principles of Graphical Representation 225
10 Case Studies of Graphical Data Presentation 235
10.1 Bivariate Graphs 237
10.2Three-Variable Graphs 251
10.3 Histograms 253
10.4 Bar Graphs 258
10.5 Pie Diagrams 264
11 Doing Science in Society 275
11.1 The Profession of Science 275
11.2 Unbiased and Independent Judgment 275
11.3 Validity of Facts 278
11.4 Giving Credit to Others and Sharing Credit 284
11.5 How Widespread Is Questionable Behavior in Science? 284
12 Perceptions and Criticisms of Science 291
12.1 Current Perceptions about Science 291
12.2 Science and Some Modern Critics 308
12.3 Sharpening Perceptions about Science 312
Index 323
