Table of Contents
Chapter 1 Introduction to Earth Science 1
Observations and Measurement Methods 1
Basic units of measurement 1
Derived units 2
Scientific notation 2
Percent error 3
Density 3
Types of Graphs 4
Natural Resources and Conservation 5
Pollution 6
Types of pollution 6
Chapter 2 Measurements and Models of the Earth 9
Size, Shape, and Roundness of the Earth 9
The size of the Earth 9
The shape of the Earth 10
The smoothness of the Earth 11
The Structure of the Earth's Layers 11
Types of Models 12
Chapter 3 Mapping the Earth 15
Latitude and Longitude Measurements 15
Latitude 15
Longitude 16
Great circles 17
Field Maps 17
Topographic Maps 18
Contour lines 18
Reading topographic maps 19
Updating maps 20
Chapter 4 Minerals 23
Crystal Structure 23
Mineral Identification 24
Mineral Families 26
Chapter 5 Rocks 29
Igneous Rocks 29
Texture 30
Composition 30
Sedimentary Rocks 31
Metamorphic Rocks 33
The Rock Cycle 34
Chapter 6 Weathering and Erosion 37
Types of Weathering 37
Rates of Weathering 38
Soils 38
Soil horizons 39
Soil types/climate 39
Soil conservation 40
Agents of Erosion 40
Running water 40
Glaciers 43
Waves 44
Gravity 46
Chapter 7 Deposition 49
Factors Affecting Deposition 49
Running Water and Wind 50
Glaciers 50
Rivers 51
Ocean Waves 51
Wind 52
Mass Movements 52
Chapter 8 Landscape Formation 55
Landscape Characteristics 55
Stream patterns 55
Hillsides 56
Landscape Regions 56
Mountains 56
Plateaus 57
Plains 57
Factors of Development 57
Rock types 57
Climate 57
Human influence 57
Drainage Patterns 58
Chapter 9 Water in the Ground 61
Water in the World 61
Water Budget 61
Water in the Ground 63
Ability of rocks to hold water 63
Transmission of water 63
Water table and wells 63
Groundwater characteristics 64
Conservation 64
Caves 65
Chapter 10 Plate Tectonics 67
Layers of the Earth 67
Evidence of Crustal Movement 68
Plate Tectonic Theory 69
Plate Boundaries 69
Diverging boundaries 69
Sliding boundaries 71
Converging boundaries 72
Hot Spots 72
Pole Reversal Patterns 73
Chapter 11 Earthquakes 75
Areas of Frequent Crustal Movement 75
Earthquake Waves 75
P-waves 76
S-waves 76
Shadow zone 76
Epicenter Location 77
Origin Time 77
Magnitude 77
Tsunami Formation 79
Predicting and Preparing for Earthquakes 79
Chapter 12 Volcanoes 81
Location 81
Formation 81
Structure 82
Cones 83
Volcanic debris 83
Types of eruptions 83
Other effects from volcanoes 84
Chapter 13 Mountain Building 87
Types of Crustal Movement 87
Plate collisions and mountain types 87
Fault types and mountain features 88
Other features of the mountain-building process 89
Correlation of Mountains and Plate Boundaries 89
Growth of Continents 90
Chapter 14 Energy and the Earth 93
Transfer of Energy 93
Radiation 93
Convection 93
Conduction 94
Advection 94
Absorption of Energy 94
Types of Energy 94
Temperature and Heat 95
Change in State of Water and Matter 96
Conversions between states 96
Energy required for change of state 97
Energy of the Earth 98
Chapter 15 Insolation and Seasons on Earth 99
Solar Radiation 99
Changes in Insolation 100
Greenhouse Effect 100
Seasons 101
Celestial Dome 102
Chapter 16 Weather 105
Composition of the Atmosphere 105
Temperature in the Atmosphere 106
The Ionosphere 106
Moisture in the Atmosphere 106
Measurement of water in the air 106
Finding relative humidity 107
Dew point 108
Clouds 109
Cloud development 110
Precipitation 110
Pressure in the Atmosphere 112
Wind 114
Causes 114
Circulation of air on Earth 114
Air Masses 116
Fronts and Mid-Latitude Cyclogenesis 117
Storms and Severe Weather 118
Thunderstorms 119
Tornadoes 120
Hurricanes 120
Winter storms 122
Synoptic Weather Maps 122
Station models 122
Temperature 123
Pressure 124
Forecasting 124
Chapter 17 The Oceans 127
Salinity 127
Layers of the Ocean 128
Surface Currents 128
Life in the Ocean 128
Ocean Floor Features 130
Fracture zones 130
Hydro thermal vents 131
Human interaction 131
Chapter 18 Water and Climate 133
The Water Cycle 133
Climate 133
Factors Affecting Climate 134
Factors controlling temperature 134
Factors controlling precipitation 134
Altitude 135
Unequal heating rates of water and land 135
Mountains 136
Long-Term Climate Change 137
Chapter 19 The Universe 139
Origin of the Universe: The Big Bang Hypothesis 139
Galaxies and Stars 140
Telescopes 140
Electromagnetic spectrum 141
Doppler shift 141
Constellations 142
Distances to stars 143
Star properties 143
Life cycle of stars 144
The Sun 145
Structure of the sun 145
Sunspots 145
Planets 146
Inner planets 146
Outer planets 147
The Moon 147
Properties of the moon 147
History of the moon 148
Comets, Asteroids, and Meteoroids 148
Chapter 20 Motions of the Earth, Moon, and Sun 151
Motion of the Earth and Its Relation to Other Bodies 151
Apparent motions in the shy 151
Locating the position of an object in the sky 152
Geocentric and heliocentric models 152
Actual motions of the Earth 152
Apparent diameters of celestial objects 153
Evidence for rotation 153
Evidence for revolution 153
Time Measurements 153
Movements and Effects of the Moon 154
Actual motions of the moon 154
Phases of the moon 155
Tides 156
Eclipses 156
Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion 157
Gravity 158
Space Travel 159
Chapter 21 Dating of Rocks 161
Uniform Processes 161
Relative Dating of Rocks and Events 161
Correlation of Rock Layers and Events 162
Index Fossils 163
Absolute Daring and Radioactive Decay 163
Tree rings 163
Varves 164
Radioactive elements 164
Half-life 164
Radioactive Dating 165
Chapter 22 Evolution at life on Earth 167
Geologic Time Scale 167
Precambrian Eon: 4.6 bya-570 mya 167
Phanerozoic Eon: 570 mya-present 168
Evolution of the Earth and Its Atmosphere 170
Development of the atmosphere 170
Major geologic events 170
Evolution of Life on Earth 171
Theory of evolution 171
Fossils 173
Review Questions 175
Glossary 199
Index 215
