Table of Contents
Acknowledgments xi
Introduction xv
1 Transmission of Light by Solids 1
1.1 Solids 1
1.2 Beginning of Transmission of Light-An Electronic Transiton 2
1.3 Long-Wavelength Cutoff 5
1.4 Extrinsic Loss within the Band, Impurities, Scatter, and Quality 10
1.5 Optical Constants and Dispersion due to Strong Absorption 12
References 14
2 Chalcogenide Glasses 17
2.1 Historical Development 17
2.2 The Periodic Table and Glass Formation 21
2.3 Evaluating Possible Glass Forming Systems 29
2.4 Qualitative Evaluation of Compositions for Development 35
2.5 General Physical Properties of Chalcogenide Glasses 40
2.5.1 Softening Points and Hardness 40
2.5.2 Thermal Coefficients of Expansion 41
2.5.3 Density 41
2.5.4 Molar Refraction 42
2.5.5 Electrical Properties 47
2.5.6 Physical Strength 47
2.5.7 Softening Points 48
2.6 Chemical Bonding in Chalcogenide Glasses 48
2.6.1 Composition Location in the Glass Forming Diagram 48
2.6.2 Molecular Vibrations of Constituent Atoms 50
2.6.3 Mass Spectrometric Investigation of Bonding in the Glasses 55
2.6.4 X-ray Radial Distribution Analysis of Chalcogenide Glasses 57
2.6.5 Conclusions from the TI Exploratory Programs of 1962 to 1965 59
2.7 Chalcogenide Glasses Containing Transition Elements 60
2.8 Discussion of Results 66
References 69
3 Glass Production 71
3.1 Reactants 71
3.2 Compounding Methods 73
3.3 Compounding with Reactant Purification 74
3.4 Open Casting Methods 77
3.5 Purification, Compounding, Casting-One Closed Operation 84
3.6 Summary 86
References 87
4 Characterization of Glass Properties 89
4.1 Thermal Expansion, Glass Transition Temperature, and Softening Point 89
4.2 Transmission, Precise Refractive Index, and Thermal Change in Refractive Index 94
4.3 Physical Properties Important for Optical Use 108
4.3.1 Hardness 108
4.3.2 Young's Modulus, Shear Modulus, and Poisson's Ratio 109
4.3.3 Rupture Modulus 110
4.3.4 Thermal Conductivity 112
4.3.5 Electrical Resistance 113
4.4 Resistance to Chemical Attack 114
4.5 Final Production Procedure 114
References 118
5 Conventional Lens Fabrication and Spherical Surfaces 119
5.1 Lens Blank Preparation 119
5.2 Generation of Spherical Surfaces 121
5.3 Polishing 122
5.4 Testing 123
5.5 Antireflection Coatings 126
Reference 129
6 Unconventional Lens Fabrication, Aspheric Surfaces, and Kinos 131
6.1 Optical Designs 131
6.2 Diamond Turning 132
6.3 Slump Molding 133
6.4 Precision Molding 133
6.5 Volume Production 146
6.6 Problem of Refractive Index Change When Pressure Molding 148
References 151
7 Glass Processes for Other Applications 153
7.1 AMI as Supplier of Chalcogenide Glasses for IR Fibers 153
7.2 AMI Fiber Drawing Process 158
7.3 Chemical Applications of AMI IR Fiber 168
7.3.1 Fiber Summary 173
7.4 Extrusion of Chalcogenide Glasses 174
7.4.1 Glass Extrusion Summary 178
References 178
8 IR Imaging Bundles Made from Chalcogenide Glass Fibers 181
8.1 The Stacked Ribbon Method 181
8.2 IR Imaging Bundles of 1-m Length 184
8.3 Goals of the Navy SBIR 10-mIR Imaging Bundle Program 191
8.4 The Navy Phase II 27-Month Program 192
8.4.1 The 1-m C2 Imaging Bundles 192
8.4.2 AMI Glass Clad Fibers 194
8.4.3 AMI Production of High-Purity Arsenic Trisulfide Glass 194
8.4.4 The 50 Percent Transmission Goal 196
8.4.5 Formation of Bundles on the 10-m Drum 199
8.4.6 Optical Evaluation of 10-m Imaging Bundles 204
8.5 Summary 209
References 210
9 AMI Infrared Crystalline Materials 211
9.1 Cadmium Telluride 211
9.2 Previous Work at TI 212
9.2.1 Conclusions Concerning This Effort 214
9.3 AMI DARPA-Funded Large Plate Process 215
9.3.1 Conclusions 221
9.4 Vacuum Float Zoned Silicon Detector Material 222
9.5 Silicon as an Infrared Optical Material 225
9.6 Single-Crystal Silicon Fibers 228
9.7 Gallium Arsenide as an Infrared Optical Material 230
9.8 Production of GaAs at AMI 231
9.9 Horizontal Bridgman Production of GaAs Plates at AMI 233
References 243
10 Early Work at Texas Instruments 245
10.1 First Job 245
10.2 Infrared Applications to Materials 245
10.3 Optical Interference and Film Thickness 247
10.4 The Infrared Scan Technique for Epitaxial Film Thickness 248
10.5 Elliptical Polarization of Light on Reflection 252
10.6 Measuring the Elliptical Polarization Angles Ψ and Δ 255
10.7 Ellipsometers Used at TI 259
10.8 Infrared Ellipsometry 259
10.9 The TI Automatic Ellipsometer System 264
10.10 Summary 269
References 270
Index 271
