Table of Contents
Introduction to the Multipurpose Plant CannabisIn the beginning: Circumstances of early human contact with CannabisA brief summary of the long and diverse history of relationships between Cannabis and humans What shall we call these plants?Should we praise or condemn this multipurpose plant?What we discuss in this bookChapter 1: Natural Origins and Early Evolution of CannabisIntroductionBasic life cycle of CannabisEcological requirements of Cannabis: Sunlight, temperature, water and soilCannabis origin and evolution studies Central Asia: Vavilov and the origins of CannabisCannabis and grapesTheories for South Asian origin of domesticated CannabisModel for the early evolution of CannabisSummary and conclusionsChapter 2: Ethnobotanical Origins, Early Cultivation and Evolution through Human Selection IntroductionFirst contacts: Origins of Human-Cannabis relationshipsTransitions to cultivation and civilizationEarliest uses of Cannabis: Useful traits for ancient peopleEvolution of Cannabis through human selectionDisruptive selectionOrigin from weedy populationsNatural hybridization: Introgression vs. isolationArtificial hybridizationAtavismIsolation of populationsPopulation size and changes in variabilityEvolutionary effects of dioecyEffects of human selection on sexual expression for different products - Seeds, fibers, marijuana and hashish Sexual dimorphism and selectionPhenotypic changes during domestication - Seeds, fibers and inflorescencesDirectional evolutionary changesCannabinoid profileTiming of floral maturationEvolution of cannabinoid phenotypesGeographical distribution of cannabinoid phenotypesNorth America; Western Europe; Eastern Europe; Central America and the Caribbean; South America; Middle East; East Asia; Indian Subcontinent; Southeast Asia; Equatorial Africa; South and East AfricaSummary and conclusionsChapter 3: Cultural Diffusion of CannabisIntroductionMethodology: The multidisciplinary approachTypes of archaeobotanical evidence for CannabisSeeds, fibers, pollen, fiber and seed impressions, other carbonized remains, chemical analysis and phytolithsWritten records of Cannabis presence and useNon-human agencies affecting the geographical range of Cannabis Human impact on the dispersal and expanding geographical range of CannabisEarly relationships among humans and Cannabis in Central AsiaFishing and hempHemp, humans and horses in EurasiaScythians and CannabisArchaeological and historical evidence for the spread of CannabisDiffusion throughout East AsiaDiffusion from northeastern China into Korea and JapanDiffusion into South AsiaArchaeobotanical evidence from South AsiaDiffusion into Southwest Asia and EgyptDiffusion into Europe and the MediterraneanRomania, Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, Baltic region, Finland, Austria, Czech Republic and Slovakia, Germany, Switzerland, Northern France, Iberian Peninsula, Netherlands, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, British Isles, and the MediterraneanDispersal phases within and beyond EurasiaPhase One: Primary dispersal across Eurasia – ca. 10,000 to 2000 BPPhase Two: Spread into Africa and Southeast Asia - ca. 2000 to 500 BPPhase Three: Migration to the New World - 1545 to 1800 Phase Four: Migration to the New World - 1800 to 1945 Phase Five: Migration after the Second World War - 1945 to 1990Phase Six: Artificial environments and the proliferation of industrial hemp – 1990 to the presentSummary and conclusions: Cannabis' dispersal from an evolutionary point of viewChapter 4: History of Cannabis Use for Fiber IntroductionTextile basicsHistorical and archaeological evidence for Cannabis fiber use in China Hemp in clothing, lacquerware, weapons and ships in ancient China Traditional Korea Contemporary South Korea and North KoreaAncient Japan and hemp Ancient evidence from South Asia, Southwest Asia and EgyptThe ancient Mediterranean regionAncient Europe north of the Mediterranean Hemp fiber use spreads to the New WorldSome aspects of the recent history of hempCannabis and paper Advent and early history of papermaking in ChinaHemp paper in ancient Korea and JapanDispersal to North Africa and EuropeHemp paper production in North AmericaSummary and conclusionsChapter 5: Food, feed and oil uses of hemp seedIntroductionHuman food and animal feed uses of hemp seeds Early hemp seed use in China: Neolithic Period through the Han DynastyHemp seed oil in ancient China Ancient evidence for traditional production and use beyond ChinaKorea; Japan; South and Southwest Asia; Central and Eastern Europe; Mediterranean and Western European RegionsPresent-day hemp seed production and useSummary and conclusionsChapter 6: Historical Aspects of Psychoactive Cannabis Use for Ritual and RecreationIntroductionDiscovery of the euphoriant properties of Cannabis in Eurasia.Central Asia ChinaTaoism and tales of Ma GuIndia and Nepal Was Soma Cannabis?South Asian psychoactive Cannabis products Hindu acceptance of ritual bhang useShiva worship and CannabisOther occasions on which bhang was usedWorship of the bhang plantMongols and Cannabis Southwest Asia, the Mediterranean, Africa and Europe The advent of Cannabis smoking: Tobacco meets hashishSummary and conclusionsChapter 7: Ethnobotanical history and contemporary context of medicinal CannabisIntroductionEarly East Asian medicinal use South and Southeast Asian medical traditionsEgyptian medicinal use Cannabis in early Middle Eastern and later Islamic medicineMedicinal use in Africa and South AmericaEuropean medicinal CannabisPresent-day Western medicinal applications of CannabisSummary and conclusionsChapter 8: Non-psychoactive Ritual Uses of CannabisIntroduction Hempen rituals of major religions – Shamanic influences survive repressionArchaeological remains from ritual contexts – Central Asia, China and EuropeThe Hmong – Spirit travel in healing, life-cycle and funerary ritualsChina – Shamanism, Taoism and Confucianism Korea – Shamanic funerary rites, Confucian mourning and ancestor worshipJapan – Shamanist, Shinto and Buddhist hemp traditions Europe and the Middle East – Judaeo-Christian hemp ritualsHangings Summary and conclusionsChapter 9: Recent history of Cannabis BreedingIntroductionEuropean hemp breeding North American hemp breeding Introduction of NLD Cannabis to North AmericaBreeding history of NLD varieties Introduction of BLD CannabisRecent trends in Cannabis breedingSummary and conclusionsChapter 10: Classical and molecular taxonomy of CannabisIntroductionOne, two or three species?History of Cannabis taxonomyRecent advances in Cannabis taxonomyGenetic and historical model for the evolution of Cannabis biotypes Recent geographical distributions of Cannabis biotypesEurope and the former Soviet Union; China; Central Asia, Afghanistan and Turkestan; India and Nepal; Southeast Asia; Africa and the Middle East; and the New WorldSummary and conclusionsChapter 11: Hypotheses Concerning the Early Evolution of CannabisIntroductionPrehistoric climate change and plant distribution: Pleistocene and Holocene rangesEarly human migrationsPlant speciation and colonization: Pleistocene refugia, post-glacial population expansion, and speciation rate Early evolution of Cannabaceae: The hemp and hop familyBreeding systems and reproductive strategies as clues to geographical origin: Angiospermy, annuality, anemophily, dioecy and sex determinationReconstruction of a Cannabaceae ancestorSummary and conclusions Chapter 12: Cannabis and Homo sapiens – Present position and future directionsIntroductionThe long term relationship Summary of Cannabis’ evolutionCannabis' influence on the evolution of human cultureA case for social benefits from Cannabis’ psychoactivity Human influence on Cannabis’ evolutionEnvironmental impact of the Human-Cannabis relationshipCoevolution of Cannabis and humans: Fresh conceptsPresent position of the Human-Cannabis relationship Remaining questions and future directions