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Product Details
| ISBN-13: | 9780914091783 |
|---|---|
| Publisher: | Chicago Review Press, Incorporated |
| Publication date: | 08/06/2019 |
| Series: | Cultures of the Ancient World |
| Sold by: | Barnes & Noble |
| Format: | eBook |
| Pages: | 208 |
| Lexile: | 1030L (what's this?) |
| File size: | 7 MB |
| Age Range: | 9 Years |
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CHAPTER 1
PART I: THE ROMANS
Roman History
The small group of people who built their huts along the Tiber River couldn't have imagined they started one of the greatest civilizations the world has ever known. But they knew they had chosen a great location where food was easy to grow and sell thanks to the river and the nearby Tyrrhenian Sea.
Most historians agree that Rome began when local tribes banded together for safety and strength near where the Roman Forum stands today. Roman legends, however, are much more fun and colorful.
The Legends
The story of Romulus and Remus, told in many versions, is the most popular legend of Rome's founding. As told by the Roman historian Livy, it all started in the lost city of Alba Longa in the Alban Hills southeast of Rome, when a prince named Amulius grabbed the throne from his older brother, Numitor.
To eliminate challengers, Amulius killed Numitor's sons and forced Numitor's daughter, Sylvia, to become a priestess of Vesta, goddess of home and family. Priestesses of Vesta could not marry, so Amulius was confident she wouldn't have any children to one day claim their right to the throne. To his surprise, Sylvia gave birth to twins, claiming the father was the Roman god Mars.
Enraged, Amulius imprisoned Sylvia and ordered his men to drown the children in the Tiber. His men put them in a basket and placed it in the river, but the basket never sank. As the story goes, a female wolf heard the babies' cries, breast-fed them, and cared for them as if they were her own cubs. Finally, a shepherd named Faustulus saw them and took them to his home, raising them with his wife, Larentia.
When the boys grew up, they discovered who they were and what had happened to their grandfather. In revenge, they killed Amulius, returned the throne to Numitor, and left to found a new city.
After the city was built, the two brothers argued over who should be king. They asked the gods for a sign. Remus was the first to receive one: he saw six vultures in flight. To the ancients, this was a token of good news. Remus was still rejoicing when Romulus saw 12 vultures. Each man was declared king by his followers, one because he saw the birds first, the other because he saw twice as many. Eventually, the argument turned violent. Romulus killed Remus and seized the throne, and the city was named Rome in his honor. This story was immortalized in many images, and the wolf became the symbol of Rome.
It's hard to know how much of this is truth and how much is legend. However, this story dates the foundation of Rome as 753 BC, close to what archaeologists believe was Rome's beginning.
The Greeks gave a different account. Their story starts after the Trojan War, when a man named Aeneas escaped the burning city of Troy (in today's Turkey) carrying his aging father on his shoulders and leading his son by the hand. Aeneas finally settled in Italy, where his son founded a city. However, the Trojan War ended around 1200 BC, much earlier than the foundation of Rome. Some Roman historians combined the two legends, saying that Aeneas's son founded Alba Longa, where Romulus and Remus were born a few centuries later.
The Kings
According to legend, Rome had a total of seven consecutive kings, starting with Romulus. Historians think this number might be incorrect. If seven kings ruled from 753 to 509 BC, each king would have ruled roughly 35 years, which was uncommon in those days. There might have been more kings, or this monarchy may have lasted for a shorter period of time.
These early kings were different from modern kings. They were more like tribal chiefs, and the throne was not passed down from father to son. Each king was elected by the Senate, a group of influential citizens. Kings led their people in wars, approved laws, and were the link between their subjects and their gods.
To grow the city, Romulus invited everyone to come, including outlaws and runaway slaves. Since these were mostly men, he tried to convince surrounding nations to give them their women in marriage. Everyone refused. Romulus then invited these nearby nations to a great sporting event, and large crowds gathered. At a given signal, the unmarried men of Rome kidnapped the single foreign women and took them to their homes.
Romulus explained to the women that the young men had every intention of loving them and treating them well, and, according to the story, the women agreed to marry them and stay in Rome. The women's fathers, however, were angry and started a war against Rome. The women put an end to the conflict, pleading with the men not to kill each other. They didn't want to lose their husbands or their fathers.
Whether or not this story is true, from the beginning Rome was composed of people of different tribes and nations and grew quickly by granting citizenship to loyal allies and freed slaves. In fact, Rome's last three kings were Etruscan.
Republic, Expansion, and Civil War
The last king of Rome, Tarquinius Superbus ("the Proud"), imposed forced labor on the citizens and stole from neighboring nations to increase his glory. The Romans eventually became tired of the bullying behavior and, in 509, expelled him and his son. To prevent further abuses, they elected new leaders called consuls and declared Rome a republic, from the Latin res publica, meaning "public property."
Tarquinius fought to take back Rome, with the help of the Etruscan king, Porsenna, but they failed. The Romans later told stories of brave heroes from the battle, such as Horatio, who fought the Etruscans singlehandedly as his men destroyed a bridge behind him, preventing the enemy from advancing into Roman territory. Horatio then leapt into the Tiber in full armor and swam safely to the other side. Many outsiders tried to conquer Rome in the early years, and the Romans suffered many defeats. But they learned from them and became strong enough to take over the entire Italian peninsula, both by force and by offering citizenship and benefits to those who joined them willingly.
The general Julius Caesar made the greatest conquests outside of Italy, including Gaul (today's France), parts of Germany, and some of North Africa. He also explored Britain and opened the door for a full conquest of Egypt, which was a major supplier of wheat, papyrus, linen, and other important products.
Caesar became powerful and well loved by the people. The Roman Senate feared he might assume too much power and ordered him to disband his army. Caesar didn't think this was fair, and he knew that many who were asking him to step down were corrupt. In 49 BC, he took his army across the Roman border, starting a civil war.
The war was mostly fought in Greece. Caesar's main adversary, known as Pompey the Great, died in 48 BC, but Caesar continued to fight in northern Africa against Pompey's allies. He returned to Rome in 46 BC, where he was greeted with honors. By this time, the Senate had come to recognize his abilities and valor. They gave him increasing power until, in 44 BC, they proclaimed him dictator for life.
Some senators, however, were terribly worried. The position of dictator was legal and approved by the Senate in cases of extreme need, but only for six months. Having a dictator for life was like having an absolute king — something Romans had fought to avoid. It looked like the end of the republic they loved. Other senators thought Caesar was too generous to the poor, and they worried they could lose their property and status. Whatever their motives, a group of senators planned an attack.
On March 15, 44 BC, Caesar attended a meeting at the Senate, despite a warning from his wife, Calpurnia, who had had an ominous dream. When he arrived, the senators surrounded him, then stabbed him with daggers until he died.
The Empire
Caesar's murder shocked and divided the people of Rome and their allies. Most Romans were outraged, because Caesar had won the hearts of his people. Others took it as a positive step in restoring the republic.
Once again, a civil war started. Those who had supported Caesar were his longtime friend Marc Antony, his adopted son and heir Octavian, and a military commander named Marcus Lepidus. After working together to defeat Brutus and Cassius, two of Caesar's main assassins, Antony and Octavian started to fight each other. They eventually faced each other in a naval battle off the coast of Greece near a city named Actium, where Octavian won once and for all.
Octavian believed that Rome needed a single ruler, but he couldn't call himself king because Romans still hated the word. He presented himself as a senior officer in the service of the state. This show of humility encouraged the Senate to grant him greater authority than they had planned. Then he adopted the name Augustus, meaning "favored by the gods," and named himself emperor.
The word emperor, still used today to refer to Augustus and his successors, simply meant "commander." Historians refer to the first 400 years of the Roman Empire (until Emperor Diocletian) as the Principate. During the Principate, many republican institutions continued, even though the emperors gained more and more power.
Rome experienced relative peace under Augustus, a time known as Pax Romana (Roman Peace). It meant that the emperor was able to keep peace within the empire, even though he still had to use an army to crush rebels and invaders.
Augustus was also able to expand the empire and restore Roman moral values, including rules to protect marriage and the family. Overall, the Roman people loved him. Some senators mourned the end of the republic, but even they were tired of the long and violent civil wars.
This time of peace and stability was interrupted by two short civil wars, each occurring when an emperor died without leaving a successor. Some emperors, such as Augustus's grandson Caligula and Caligula's grandson Nero, were cruel and tyrannical. Some of the most respected emperors were Vespasian (AD 69-79), who brought stability to the empire, and Marcus Aurelius (161-180), who is considered the last emperor of the Pax Romana.
His son Commodus (161-192), less concerned with defending the empire's borders, began a period of a steady decline, plagued by frequent foreign raids and military rebellions. From 235 to 284, 25 out of 26 emperors were murdered.
Reorganization
In 286, Emperor Diocletian realized the empire was too big to be ruled by one man. He divided it in half, keeping the supervision of the eastern part and assigning the western portion to general Maximian.
The responsibility was large even for two men, so Diocletian chose another commander, Galerius, to assist him. Maximian chose Constantius to do the same for him. The emperors kept the title augustus, while their assistants were known as caesars. According to Diocletian's plans, after 20 years both he and Galerius would retire and leave the crown to their assistants. It was an intelligent and revolutionary plan.
But even Diocletian loved power. He called himself "son of Jupiter" and required his subjects to bow to the ground before him. His claim of divine authority clashed with the growing Christian community, who worshiped a single god. Diocletian's short and bloody campaign to punish rebellious Christians became the fiercest in history.
In 305, Diocletian kept his word and retired, returning to Dalmatia to garden. Maximian retired too. The empire passed to their caesars, who in turn chose new caesars to take their places. This system didn't last long, however, because the rulers began fighting for power.
At this time rose an emperor named Constantine ("the Great") who defeated his rivals at the Milvian Bridge in northern Rome. According to accounts, before the battle he saw the Greek letters ITLχITL (X) and ITLρITL (P) in a dream, which are the first two letters in the name Christ, the Greek equivalent of the Hebrew "Messiah." He painted these letters on his soldiers' shields and attributed his victory to Jesus of Nazareth, known as the Christ, whom he now worshiped as god.
Constantine ruled over the Western Empire, while his ally Licinius ruled the East. In 313, the two emperors agreed that the Christian religion should no longer be outlawed.
The End of the Western Empire
In 376, Rome faced a new problem. Tens of thousands of Goths (a Germanic population) begged the Romans to let them enter the empire to escape a fierce attack from the Asian Huns. The Roman emperor Valens agreed, as long as the Goths converted to Christianity and performed military service. He even gave them free food until they could get settled.
This plan didn't go smoothly. Some Roman officials disliked the Goths and refused to give them food. They also tried to force them into slavery. The Goths rebelled. Violence erupted and the emperor launched a military attack. Confident they would win, in 378 the Romans attacked the Goths at the Battle of Adrianople (in today's Turkey), without waiting for orders. Noticing their disorganization, the Goths responded with full force, killing 40,000 Romans, including the emperor.
The Goths stayed inside the Roman Empire's borders. Most of the time, it was peaceful. Many Romans, however, disliked these foreigners, whose looks, habits, and language were different and uncivilized to Roman eyes, and they launched violent attacks against them.
Finally, in AD 410, a Gothic general named Alaric, angered by unfulfilled Roman promises, led his troops against the city of Rome. At first, his troops surrounded Rome in a siege. When attempts to come to an agreement failed, he attacked and robbed the city, destroying buildings.
The Romans were in shock. How could it be? Rome was called the "Eternal City" and had not been attacked by a foreign enemy since 390 BC.
It looked like the end of the world, but it wasn't. For Rome, it was just gradual decay. More Germanic tribes entered Roman territories, and the Roman government withdrew its troops from Britain, Spain, and North Africa. The empire was just too large to manage.
Rome was attacked again in 455 by a Germanic tribe called Vandals. The final attack came in 476, when a Germanic warrior named Odoacer, who had joined the Roman army, captured Rome and removed its last emperor, Romulus Augustus, from power. He then declared himself king of Italy.
Why did the powerful Western Roman Empire come to an end? It's a difficult question to answer, because many of the reasons historians have suggested were also present in the Eastern Roman Empire, which thrived for another 1,000 years, until it was conquered by the Ottomans (Turks) in 1453. One possible answer is that the Western Empire gradually lost the ability to deal with the challenges that came with its size. The Eastern Empire was more manageable and stable.
Nevertheless, Roman culture, laws, habits, and literature continued for centuries, both in the East and the West. Even the conquering tribes appreciated the greatness of Rome and tried to imitate and preserve it.
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE
Roman architects and engineers were resourceful and inventive. Many of their buildings and constructions still stand and have served as models for generations. Some buildings you know were inspired by the architecture of ancient Rome. The White House with its columns looks typically Roman, and the Jefferson Memorial resembles the Roman Pantheon, a temple devoted to all gods.
Roman architecture flourished under Augustus, who boasted he found Rome a city of bricks and left it a city of marble. In reality, the extensive use of bricks and concrete was a Roman innovation that revolutionized Western architecture.
Marble was expensive. It had to be dug out of the sides of mountains through special pits called quarries. In Italy, marble was found mostly in an area about 250 miles northeast of Rome. Even less expensive stone was not widely available.
The Romans discovered that by mixing sand, seawater, and volcanic ash with a white substance called lime, they could create a resistant type of concrete. This concrete was so long-lasting, many Roman buildings still stand today, 2,000 years after they were erected. Modern scientists say the secret was in the type of volcanic ash they used and its reaction with seawater.
(Continues…)
Excerpted from "Ancient Romans and Their Neighbors"
by .
Copyright © 2019 Simonetta Carr.
Excerpted by permission of Chicago Review Press Incorporated.
All rights reserved. No part of this excerpt may be reproduced or reprinted without permission in writing from the publisher.
Excerpts are provided by Dial-A-Book Inc. solely for the personal use of visitors to this web site.
Table of Contents
Introduction,
Time Line,
PART I: THE ROMANS,
Roman History,
Roman Architecture,
Build a Miniature Roman Road,
Roman Clothing,
Clean Your Skin Like a Roman,
Roman Writing,
Write a Letter Like an Ancient Roman,
Roman Art and Music,
Tell Your Life Story on a Roman Column,
Warn Your Friends with a Roman Mosaic,
Roman Religion,
Roman Government and Warfare,
Design a Coin for a President or Governor,
Create a Roman Standard for Your Family or Classroom,
Roman Daily Life,
Play a Children's Walnut Game,
Roman Food,
Serve a Plate of Roman Frictilia,
Try an Ancient Roman Spread,
PART II: THE ETRUSCANS,
Etruscan History,
Etruscan Architecture,
Build an Edible Etruscan Arch,
Etruscan Clothing,
Make an Etruscan Mirror,
Create an Elegant Etruscan Brooch,
Etruscan Writing,
Leave a Message on a Gold or Silver Tablet,
Create a Secret Language,
Etruscan Art and Music,
Give Your Backpack an Etruscan Handle,
Etruscan Religion,
Etruscan Government and Warfare,
Etruscan Daily Life,
Build an Etruscan Dodecahedron,
Etruscan Food,
Warm Up with a Bowl of Etruscan Soup,
PART III: THE CELTS,
Celtic History,
Celtic Architecture,
Build an Edible Gallic Wall,
Celtic Clothing,
Create a Celtic Brooch,
Weave a Colorful Mat,
Make a Celtic Torque,
Celtic Writing,
Celtic Art and Music,
Create a Stylized Celtic Picture,
Make a Celtic Knot,
Celtic Religion,
Celtic Government and Warfare,
Make a Celtic Sword,
Celtic Daily Life,
Celtic Food,
Make Butter,
PART IV: THE CARTHAGINIANS,
Carthaginian History,
Carthaginian Architecture,
Carthaginian Clothing,
Be a Perfume Maker,
Create a Carthaginian Pendant,
Carthaginian Writing,
Carthaginian Art and Music,
Make a Thanksgiving Stela,
Create and Play a Carthaginian Tambourine,
Carthaginian Religion,
Mass-Produce Some Figurines,
Scare Off Evil Spirits with a Carthaginian Mask,
Carthaginian Government and Warfare,
Carthaginian Daily Life,
Carthaginian Food,
Fill Up with Hefty Carthaginian Grains,
Glossary,
Acknowledgments,
Resources,
Notes,
Selected Bibliography,