A Divergent Foreign Policy Alliance: The US Towards Military-ruled Pakistan (1947-65)

by Syed Hussain Shaheed Soherwordi, Joseph Prud'homme (Editor)

Overview

This book examines through the use of archives and oral evidence the role of the Pakistan Army in the context of Pakistan’s foreign policy and domestic politics. Its main purpose is to explore the autonomy of the Pakistan Army in shaping national and foreign policy between the years 1947-1965. Focusing on its independent relationship with three instruments of policy-making in the United States – the Department of State, the White House and the Pentagon – the theory argues that the relationship between the Army and these policy-making bodies arose from a synergistic commonality of interests. The Americans needed a country, created in the name of Islam, on the periphery of the Soviet Union to contain Communism while the Pakistan Army needed US military support to check Indian regional military hegemonism in South Asia. This alliance was secured to the disadvantage of democratic political institutions of Pakistan while sowing the seeds of religious bigotry in politics. The Army, which became stronger as a result of US military and economic support, came progressively to dominate domestic politics. This led not only to weakened civilian governments in the period I am examining, but in 1958 to the military seizure of political control of the country itself. The infringement of the Army into civilian spheres of government further caused a deterioration in relations between East and West Pakistan. Religion, the foundation of the creation of country, failed to keep the two wings united. The increasing clout of a US-backed Army whose elite officers had a bias against the eastern wing of the country, the theory argues, thus indirectly resulted in the dismemberment of Pakistan itself.

To explain the Army’s ascendancy its transformation from British colonial army into a national political actor, is documented. The book explores the influence of the martial-race theory and of Punjabisation in the Army as it developed in the colonial era. Secondly, it reconstructs how provincial politics weakened the Federal Government and allowed the Army to usurp political power to a disproportionate degree. Thirdly, it considers the extent to which the US- Pakistan Army relationship influenced and even took precedence over decision-making within the government itself. It details the military pacts made between the two countries to contain the USSR in this period. Finally, it explores where and how the interests of the US and Pakistan Army diverged, in particular concerning their respective relations with India. The complications arising in Indo-Pakistan relations in consequence of an abrupt tilt of the US towards India after the Sino-Indian war in 1962 are also examined. In reaction to this new Indo-US nexus, it is argued the Pakistani military junta leaned towards China and in 1965 endeavoured to make use of it advanced, US-supplied weaponry before – as they saw it – the strategic balance was to be irrecoverably lost in favour of India.

In conclusion, the book argues that the period under consideration saw a complete failure of the US policy of containing communism whilst at the same time avoiding war between its allies in the region, and that this had tragic consequences for the future of secular democracy in Pakistan.

Product Details

ISBN-13:	9781636675206
Publisher:	Peter Lang Inc., International Academic Publishers
Publication date:	08/16/2024
Series:	Washington College Studies in Religion, Politics, and Culture , #16
Product dimensions:	6.50(w) x 1.50(h) x 9.50(d)

About the Author

Syed Hussain Shaheed Soherwordi　is a Professor, Chairman of the department of International Relations and former Director of the Institute of Peace and Conflict Studies with the University of Peshawar, following a career as researcher and professor of International Relations, Conflict Resolution, Political Science and Creative Leadership. He completed his MS and PhD from the University of Edinburgh, Scotland. He remained fellow of Fulbright, Carnegie, Charles Wallace, Higher Education Commission (HEC), and Edinburgh University. He taught at the Fulbright Commission, Bulgaria for five years (2010-2014), where his teaching and training concerned peace & conflict resolution during the 21^st century especially extremism in the conflict zones like FATA (Pakistan), Afghanistan, the US foreign policy, and the Middle East. Dr. Soherwordi has written more than forty-eight (48) research papers on history and relations of India-Pakistan, Tribal Areas of Pakistan, War on Terror, Afghanistan, Pak-US relations, Conflict Resolution and the application of strategies to the prevention of terrorism, extremism and amelioration of counter-violent extremism. He edited two volumes titled "Socio-Economic and Political Currents in FATA: A Way Forward" in 2015 and "Religion, Economics and Politics of FATA" in 2021 by Peter Lang Publishers, US.

Dr Soherwordi has consulted for numerous foundations and government agencies on subjects like governance, local government, police reforms, education policy, federalism and decentralization. He is a visiting professor at the Command and Staff College, Quetta, National Institute of Management (NIM) Peshawar, Pakistan Naval Academy, Karachi, Pakistan Navy War College, Lahore, and National School of Public Policy (NSPP), Lahore. He is also a member of the editorial boards of numerous Journals. Dr Soherwordi regularly contributes his write-ups in national newspapers.

Table of Contents

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract i

Acknowledgements iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS v

List of Maps vii

List of tables/illustrations viii

Acronyms ix

Glossary xi

Mapof South Asia before 1971 xii

Map of Pakistan xiii

INTRODUCTION 1

CHAPTER 1

Advent and Evolution: The Pakistan Army from the British Indian Army 1857-1947.

1.1 Introduction 12

1.2 The Advent of the British Indian Army 13

1.3 Post-1857 Regional Recruitment Shift–

The Evolution of Punjabisation 17

1.4 Punjabisation with Caution –

The Fallout of the Bengal Mutiny 22

1.5 The Indigenous Indian Army and the British 25

1.6 Social and Psychological Influences on Indigenous Soldiers 30

1.7 ‘Indianisation’ of the British Army 33

Conclusion 41

CHAPTER 2

Weak Political Institutions and The rise of the Army in Pakistan: 1947-58.

2.1 Introduction 44

2.2 Indo-phobia, Islam and the Creation of Pakistan 47

2.3 Civil and Military Relations 49

2.4 Weak Democratic Institutions 51

2.4.1 The Punjab 51

2.4.2 The NWFP 55

2.5 Pakhtoonistan 58

2.6 FEDERATION vs. THE PAKISTAN ARMY 65

Conclusion 92

CHAPTER 3

American Policy Making Bodies and the Pakistan Army: Towards Military Alliances 1947-57.

3.1 Introduction 94

3.2 Importance of Pakistan and the US Global Priority List 96

3.3 US Proposed South Asian Unity 99

3.4 Power Bloc Theory (PBT) of India 102

3.5 US Support to Pakistan for Leadership of the Muslim World 103

3.6 Pseudo-War Crisis between India and Pakistan 1951. 106

3.7 Mid-East Defence Organization (MEDO) 108

3.8 A Shift in US Policy: From MEDO to Military Alliances 114

3.9 Institutional Alliance in the Offing 116

3.10 The British displeasure over growing Institutional Alliance. 123

3.11 Offers and Pressures from the Soviet Union 135

3.12 Pak-US Cooperation with Other Middle Eastern Countries and

Egypt’s Aspiration of Muslim Leadership 138

Conclusion 141

CHAPTER 4

Military rule in Pakistan and India as a Factor in Straining the Pak-US Institutional Interaction: 1958-62.

4.1 Introduction 143

4.2 MILITARY RULE IN PAKISTAN: 1958-62. 144

4.2.1 Military Rule and Ethnic Problem 153

4.2.2 Military Rule and the Country’s Legal System 156

4.2.3 Military Rule and the Plight of Foreign

Services of Pakistan 159

4.3 INDIA AS A FACTOR IN STRAINING

PAK-US INSTITUTIONAL INTERACTION: 1958-62. 161

4.3.1 The US Fear of Communism in India 161

4.3.2 Growing Indo-US relations 164

4.3.3 India’s annexation of Goa 169

4.3.4 Further Dips in Pak-US Relations 170

4.3.5 Sino-India War and the Beginning of the

End of Institutional Interaction 175

Conclusion 179

CHAPTER 5

Allies at Loggerheads: The US and the Pakistan Army 1962-65.

5.1 Introduction 183

5.2 The Kashmir Dispute and the Triangular Relationship

between Pakistan, India and the US 183

5.3 Harriman’s Mission Impossible to the South Asia 186

5.4 Pakistan Drifts towards Communist China:

Troubled Pak-US Relations 190

5.5 Popular Anti-US Sentiments in Pakistan 195

5.6 Post-Nehru India 197

5.7 The US Assistance to Pakistan and India 198

5.8 President Ayub’s Visit to China, March 1965. 207

5.9 The Pakistan Army and the Domestic Politics 210

Conclusion 215

CONCLUSION 217

Bibliography 239