Table of Contents

1.1 The Nature of Chemistry 2

Thinking Like a Chemist 2

1.2 A Scientific Approach to Problem Solving 3

Chemistry in action

Egyptians, the First Medicinal Chemists 4

The Scientific Method 4

1.3 The Particulate Nature of Matter 5

Physical States of Matter 6

1.4 Classifying Matter 7

Distinguishing Mixtures from Pure Substances 8

Review 9

Review Questions 10

Paired Exercises, Additional Exercises 11

Answers to Practice Exercises 12

2 Standards for Measurement 13

2.1 Scientific Notation 14

2.2 Measurement and Uncertainty 15

2.3 Significant Figures 16

Rounding Off Numbers 17

2.4 Significant Figures in Calculations 18

Multiplication or Division 18

Addition or Subtraction 19

2.5 The Metric System 21

Measurement of Length 22

Unit Conversions 23

Measurement of Mass 24

Chemistry in action

Keeping Track of Units 25

Measurement of Volume 26

2.6 Dimensional Analysis: A Problem-Solving Method 27

2.7 Measurement of Temperature 30

Chemistry in action

Setting Standards 32

Chemistry in action

Taking the Temperature of Old Faithful 33

2.8 Density 34

Review 37

Review Questions 38

Paired Exercises 39

Additional Exercises 41

Challenge Exercises, Answers to Practice Exercises 43

3 Elements and Compounds 44

3.1 Elements 45

Natural States of the Elements 45

Distribution of Elements 46

Names of the Elements 47

Symbols of the Elements 47

Chemistry in action

Naming Elements 48

3.2 Introduction to the Periodic Table 49

Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids 50

Diatomic Elements 51

Chemistry in action

Atomic Oxygen, Friend or Foe? 52

3.3 Compounds and Formulas 52

Molecular and Ionic Compounds 52

Writing Formulas of Compounds 54

Composition of Compounds 55

Review 57

Review Questions 58

Paired Exercises 59

Additional Exercises 60

Challenge Exercises, Answers to Practice Exercises 61

4 Properties of Matter 62

4.1 Properties of Substances 63

Chemistry in action

Making Money 64

4.2 Physical and Chemical Changes 65

4.3 Learning to Solve Problems 68

4.4 Energy 68

Energy in Chemical Changes 69

Conservation of Energy 70

4.5 Heat: Quantitative Measurement 70

4.6 Energy in the Real World 72

Chemistry in action

Popping Popcorn 73

Review 74

Review Questions 75

Paired Exercises 76

Additional Exercises 77

Challenge Exercises, Answers to Practice Exercises 78

PUTTING IT TOGETHER

CHAPTERS 1–4 REVIEW 79

5 Early Atomic Theory and Structure 82

5.1 Dalton’s Model of the Atom 83

5.2 Electric Charge 84

Discovery of Ions 84

5.3 Subatomic Parts of the Atom 85

5.4 The Nuclear Atom 87

General Arrangement of Subatomic Particles 88

Atomic Numbers of the Elements 89

5.5 Isotopes of the Elements 89

Chemistry in action

Isotope Detectives 91

5.6 Atomic Mass 92

Review 93

Review Questions 94

Paired Exercises 95

Additional Exercises 96

Challenge Exercise, Answers to Practice Exercises 97

6 Nomenclature of Inorganic Compounds 98

6.1 Common and Systematic Names 99

6.2 Elements and Ions 100

Chemistry in action

What’s in a Name? 101

6.3 Writing Formulas from Names of Ionic Compounds 103

6.4 Naming Binary Compounds 105

Binary Ionic Compounds Containing a Metal Forming Only One Type of Cation 105

Binary Ionic Compounds Containing a Metal That Can Form Two or More Types of Cations 106

Binary Compounds Containing Two Nonmetals 108

6.5 Naming Compounds Containing Polyatomic Ions 109

6.6 Acids 111

Binary Acids 111

Naming Oxy-Acids 112

Review 114

Review Questions 115

Paired Exercises 116

Additional Exercises 117

Challenge Exercise, Answers to Practice Exercises 118

PUTTING IT TOGETHER

CHAPTERS 5–6 review 119

7 Quantitative Composition of Compounds 121

7.1 The Mole 122

7.2 Molar Mass of Compounds 126

7.3 Percent Composition of Compounds 129

Percent Composition from Formula 130

Chemistry in action

Vanishing Coins? 132

7.4 Calculating Empirical Formulas 133

7.5 Calculating the Molecular Formula from the Empirical Formula 135

Review 138

Review Questions, Paired Exercises 139

Additional Exercises 141

Challenge Exercises, Answers to Practice Exercises 142

8 Chemical Equations 143

8.1 The Chemical Equation 144

Conservation of Mass 145

8.2 Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations 145

Information in a Chemical Equation 149

8.3 Types of Chemical Equations 150

Combination Reaction 150

Chemistry in Action

CO Poisoning—A Silent Killer 151

Decomposition Reaction 151

Single-Displacement Reaction 152

Double-Displacement Reaction 153

8.4 Heat in Chemical Reactions 156

8.5 Global Warming: The Greenhouse Effect 159

Chemistry in action

Decreasing Carbon Footprints 160

Review 161

Review Questions, Paired Exercises 163

Additional Exercises 165

Challenge Exercise, Answers to Practice Exercises 166

9 Calculations from Chemical Equations 167

9.1 Introduction to Stoichiometry 168

A Short Review 168

9.2 Mole–Mole Calculations 170

9.3 Mole–Mass Calculations 173

9.4 Mass–Mass Calculations 174

9.5 Limiting Reactant and Yield Calculations 176

Chemistry in action

A Shrinking Technology 177

Review 182

Review Questions, Paired Exercises 183

Additional Exercises 185

Challenge Exercises, Answers to Practice Exercises 187

PUTTING IT TOGETHER

CHAPTERS 7–9 review 188

10 Modern Atomic Theory and the Periodic Table 191

10.1 Electromagnetic Radiation 192

Electromagnetic Radiation 192

Chemistry in action

You Light Up My Life 193

10.2 The Bohr Atom 193

10.3 Energy Levels of Electrons 195

Chemistry in action

Atomic Clocks 197

10.4 Atomic Structures of the First 18 Elements 198

10.5 Electron Structures and the Periodic Table 201

Chemistry in action

Collecting the Elements 202

Review 206

Review Questions 207

Paired Exercises 208

Additional Exercises 210

Challenge Exercises, Answers to Practice Exercises 211

11 Chemical Bonds: The Formation of Compounds from Atoms 212

11.1 Periodic Trends in Atomic Properties 213

Metals and Nonmetals 213

Atomic Radius 214

Ionization Energy 214

11.2 Lewis Structures of Atoms 216

11.3 The Ionic Bond: Transfer of Electrons from One Atom to Another 217

11.4 Predicting Formulas of Ionic Compounds 222

11.5 The Covalent Bond: Sharing Electrons 224

11.6 Electronegativity 226

Chemistry in Action

Trans-forming Fats 228

11.7 Lewis Structures of Compounds 229

Chemistry in Action

Strong Enough to Stop a Bullet? 232

11.8 Complex Lewis Structures 232

11.9 Compounds Containing Polyatomic Ions 234

Chemistry in Action

Chemistry or Art? 235

11.10 Molecular Shape 235

The Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Model 235

Review 239

Review Questions 240

Paired Exercises 241

Additional Exercises 243

Challenge Exercises 244

Answers to Practice Exercises 245

PUTTING IT TOGETHER

CHAPTERS 10–11 review 246

12 The Gaseous State of Matter 248

12.1 Properties of Gases 249

Measuring the Pressure of a Gas 249

Pressure Dependence on the Number of Molecules and the Temperature 251

Chemistry in action

What the Nose Knows 252

12.2 Boyle’s Law 252

12.3 Charles’ Law 256

12.4 Avogadro’s Law 259

12.5 Combined Gas Laws 260

Mole–Mass–Volume Relationships of Gases 262

12.6 Ideal Gas Law 264

The Kinetic-Molecular Theory 266

Real Gases 266

Chemistry in action

Air Quality 267

12.7 Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures 267

Chemistry in action

Getting High to Lose Weight? 268

12.8 Density of Gases 270

12.9 Gas Stoichiometry 270

Mole–Volume and Mass–Volume Calculations 270

Volume–Volume Calculations 272

Review 274

Review Questions 276

Paired Exercises 277

Additional Exercises 279

Challenge Exercises, Answers to Practice Exercises 281

13 Liquids 282

13.1 States of Matter: A Review 283

13.2 Properties of Liquids 283

Surface Tension 283

Evaporation 284

Vapor Pressure 285

13.3 Boiling Point and Melting Point 286

Chemistry in Action

Chemical Eye Candy 288

13.4 Changes of State 288

13.5 Intermolecular Forces 290

Dipole–Dipole Attractions 290

The Hydrogen Bond 291

Chemistry in Action

How Sweet It Is! 293

London Dispersion Forces 294

13.6 Hydrates 295

13.7 Water, a Unique Liquid 297

Physical Properties of Water 297

Chemistry in Action

Reverse Osmosis? 298

Structure of the Water Molecule 298

Sources of Water for a Thirsty World 299

Review 300

Review Questions 301

Paired Exercises 302

Additional Exercises 303

Challenge Exercises, Answers to Practice Exercises 304

14 Solutions 305

14.1 General Properties of Solutions 306

14.2 Solubility 307

The Nature of the Solute and Solvent 308

The Effect of Temperature on Solubility 309

The Effect of Pressure on Solubility 310

Saturated, Unsaturated, and Supersaturated Solutions 310

14.3 Rate of Dissolving Solids 311

14.4 Concentration of Solutions 312

Dilute and Concentrated Solutions 313

Mass Percent Solution 313

Mass/Volume Percent (m/v) 315

Volume Percent 315

Molarity 315

Dilution Problems 319

14.5 Colligative Properties of Solutions 320

Chemistry in action

The Scoop on Ice Cream 324

14.6 Osmosis and Osmotic Pressure 325

Review 327

Review Questions 328

Paired Exercises 329

Additional Exercises 332

Challenge Exercises, Answers to Practice Exercises 333

PUTTING IT TOGETHER

CHAPTERS 12–14 review 334

15 Acids, Bases, and Salts 337

15.1 Acids and Bases 338

Chemistry in action

Drug Delivery: An Acid–Base Problem 341

15.2 Reactions of Acids and Bases 342

Acid Reactions 342

Base Reactions 343

15.3 Salts 343

Chemistry in action

A Cool Fizz 344

15.4 Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes 344

Dissociation and Ionization of Electrolytes 345

Strong and Weak Electrolytes 346

Colligative Properties of Electrolyte Solutions 348

Ionization of Water 348

15.5 Introduction to pH 349

Chemistry in action

Ocean Corals Threatened by Increasing Atmospheric CO2 Levels 351

15.6 Neutralization 352

15.7 Writing Net Ionic Equations 354

15.8 Acid Rain 356

Review 357

Review Questions, Paired Exercises 359

Additional Exercises 361

Challenge Exercises, Answers to Practice Exercises 362

16 Chemical Equilibrium 363

16.1 Rates of Reaction 364

16.2 Chemical Equilibrium 365

Reversible Reactions 365

16.3 Le Châtelier’s Principle 366

Chemistry in Action

New Ways in Fighting Cavities and Avoiding the Drill 367

Effect of Concentration on Equilibrium 368

Effect of Volume on Equilibrium 370

Effect of Temperature on Equilibrium 371

Effect of Catalysts on Equilibrium 372

16.4 Equilibrium Constants 373

16.5 Ion Product Constant for Water 374

16.6 Ionization Constants 376

16.7 Solubility Product Constant 378

16.8 Buffer Solutions: The Control of pH 381

Chemistry in Action

Exchange of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide in the Blood 382

Review 383

Review Questions 384

Paired Exercises 385

Additional Exercises 387

Challenge Exercises, Answers to Practice Exercises 389

17 Oxidation–Reduction 390

17.1 Oxidation Number 391

Oxidation–Reduction 393

17.2 Balancing Oxidation–Reduction Equations 395

17.3 Balancing Ionic Redox Equations 398

Chemistry in Action

Sensitive Sunglasses 400

17.4 Activity Series of Metals 401

17.5 Electrolytic and Voltaic Cells 403

Chemistry in Action

Superbattery Uses Hungry Iron Ions 407

Review 407

Review Questions 409

Paired Exercises 410

Additional Exercises 412

Challenge Exercises, Answers to Practice Exercises 413

PUTTING IT TOGETHER

CHAPTERS15–17 review 414

APPENDICES

I. Mathematical and Review A-1

II. Using a Scientific Calculator A-10

III. Units of Measurement A-14

IV. Vapor Pressure of Water at Various Temperatures A-15

V. Solubility Table A-16

VI. Answers to Selected Exercises A-17

VII. Answers to Putting It Together Review

Exercises A-27

GLOSARY G-1

INDEX I-1