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CHAPTER 1

LAND & PEOPLE

"After God created the world, he stopped and looked puzzled at all the little pieces that were left. There were lush forests, clear lakes, inhospitable mountains, and fertile plains. He decided to stick them all together and place them right at the end of the world, to make the longest country on earth: Chile."

This legend, which Chileans tell with pride and wit, sums up how they see themselves and their country.

GEOGRAPHY

Chile is a long, narrow stretch of land that runs along much of the Pacific coast of South America. The terrain ranges from sea level to the great Andes mountains, the highest point of which is 22,572 feet (6,880 m). Only 20 percent of its territory is flat. Chile borders Peru in the north, and Argentina and Bolivia to the north and east, and has over 3,700 miles (6,000 km) of rugged coast along the west side. The country can be divided into four main areas: the Andes (commonly called the Cordillera) in the east; the lesser coastal range (the Cordillera de la Costa); the Central Region (the Zona Central); and Patagonia in the south.

The Andes, which start way north in Venezuela, stretch along the entire length of Chile. They are the result of the intense seismic activity caused by the pressure exercised by the oceanic Nazca Plate against the South American Plate. Peaks can reach over 20,000 feet (6,000 m) in the north and center of the country, where they are part of several complex mountain ranges stretching from east to west. Toward the south the Andes become much lower, in particular in Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego, where they are carved by glacial valleys, deep fjords, and channels. The entire Andean area is characterized by intense volcanic activity. There are over 2,000 volcanoes, some of which are still active.

The coastal range runs from Arica in the north to Puerto Montt at about latitude 42°, taking the form of high vertical cliffs or mountain ranges that rise over 7,000 feet (2,100 m). At this point it continues under the ocean and forms the various archipelagos that dot the southern part of the country. Chiloé is the largest of these islands.

The Central Region is a series of plains situated between the sea and the mountains and consists oftwo main areas. The Atacama Desert in the north, which extends for over 1,200 miles (2,000 km), is one of the driest areas in the world. The central area in the strict sense of the word lies between Santiago and Puerto Montt; it is the country's most densely populated region and the main agricultural center. Almost 75 percent of the total Chilean population live in the part of this region that lies between Viña del Mar and Concepción and includes the capital Santiago.

Further south lies Chilean Patagonia, a mountainous region shaped by glaciation and volcanic eruptions. Northern Patagonia consists of several islands, coastal mountains, and lakes. There are only a few towns connected to the north via a very precarious road called the Carretera Austral (or sometimes the Camino Austral). Southern Patagonia is extremely isolated as fjords and glaciers extending acrossthe entire Chilean territory make it accessible only by air or via Argentina. It is a rugged region with a central glacial plain mostly used for cattle and sheep farming. The Magellan Strait separates main Patagonia from the island of Tierra del Fuego, a windswept region, flat in the north and mountainous in the south.

Easter Island, discovered by a Dutch explorer on Easter Day and annexed to Chile by treaty, is a volcanic Polynesian island situated almost 2,500 miles (4,000 km) from Santiago. There are three volcanoes and gentle slopes covered with low vegetation. Unlike other Polynesian islands, which are sheltered by coral reefs, it has a rugged coast with high vertical cliffs eroded by the sea. Chile also claims an area of Antarctica south of Cape Horn.

CLIMATE

Chile is locked between the sea and the Andes, which in the north acts as a barrier against the bad weather fronts coming from Argentina in the east, while further south it traps all the moisture from the Pacific, causing continuous heavy rain. In addition, the Chilean coast is exposed to the cooling effect of the cold Humboldt Current, which flows northward all the way to Ecuador and is responsible for the relatively moderate temperature of northern Chile and the typical ocean mist called camanchaca.

Northern Chile has a very dry climate but, despite the latitude, temperatures are never very high. In the desert and at high altitudes, the sun can be extremely hot during the day and there are cold nights. In the Central Region the climate is temperate. It rains more and temperatures range from 50°F (10°C) to around 85°F (30°C). In the south, precipitation is more frequent and heavier, with low temperatures and only sporadic sunny days in summer. This is one of the stormiest and wettest regions on earth. In Patagonia, winters are very cold — 40°F (4°C) on average — with snow and frost. In spring and summer, strong westerly winds make the weather extremely changeable, bringing heavy rains from the ocean.

As Chile is in the southern hemisphere, October to March (late spring and summer) is the best time to visit, especially when traveling in the south. November and December might be rainy, but are the best months to enjoy beautiful Chilean flowers, such as copihues (the national flower) and fuchsias. February is the holiday month in Chile, so tourist areas should be avoided. The north can be visited throughout the year. In the Andean highlands the driest and sunniest period is in winter (from June to August).

POPULATION

About 95 percent of the Chilean population is of white or white-Amerindian origin. This ethnic composition is the result of Spanish colonization, the subsequent extinction of a large part of the indigenous people, and finally the arrival of immigrants from Europe, the Middle East, and Asia. Despite this complicated history, Chileans feel and like to be thought of as a homogeneous society of European origins. Many value a fair complexion, and look down on an "indigenous" appearance. There is a collective denial of the multiethnic nature of Chilean society, where indigenous communities are largely ignored and marginalized. Chile is less racially diverse than other Latin American countries; in particular, there are no groups of African descent.

Indigenous Groups

Before the arrival of the Spanish in the sixteenth century, the country was inhabited by different Indian groups, some of whom still survive today. Although few Chileans will admit their Indian origins, mestizaje (miscegenation) is very common. As a popular saying goes, "There's no Chilean family without an Indian woman hidden somewhere in the family tree." This mixing started in the Spanish communities, which were, at least initially, mainly male; Indian women were often taken as concubines or servants, or simply raped. With time, Spaniards and indigenous peoples intermingled through trade, and in some rural areas, such as the island of Chiloé, they were practically living together.

The Mapuche ("People of the Land"), or Araucanos, as they were called by the Spaniards, are the largest indigenous group in Chile (official statistics estimates it at 600,000 people). Originally they lived between Talca (south of Santiago) and Chiloé; today they are concentrated mainly in the area around Temuco. The Mapuche lived by farming and fishing and were structured around family groups. They resisted the Spaniards ferociously. Although never defeated, they ended up signing a very unfavorable treaty, and gradually lost almost all their land. Now largely marginalized and impoverished, the Mapuche are often the victims of prejudice and abuse. Although legislation has attempted to repair some of the damage, recent protests against timber companies and the construction of a dam threatening their livelihood show that they are still fighting for a meaningful recognition of their rights. As in all of Latin America, racism toward the indios is deeply rooted. Even if you admire a dark complexion and Indian features, be wary of pointing them out to a Chilean — it might not be taken as a compliment!

Smaller indigenous groups can be found in the north and in Patagonia. Today, 48,000 Aymara live in the coastal cities of the north. In Patagonia most Indians were killed either by Spanish and Chilean expansion or by disease, marginalization, and alcohol. The few survivors belong to the Yagan (or Yamana) and the Kawashkar (also known as Alacalufe).

Immigrants

From the mid-nineteenth century the composition of the population started to change with the arrival of European immigrants. Chile welcomed them in the belief that white Europeans would bring modernity, progress, and civilization to the country. The British were involved in trade, finance, and the development of the navy and the transport system. German immigration was actively encouraged by the government from 1852, with the aim of populating the areas around Valdivia and the Lake Region. Many Germans emigrated to Chile during or directly after the Second World War. Some were Nazi criminals; others were simply poor refugees fleeing the war.

At the end of the nineteenth century in remote areas such as Patagonia, state-sponsored immigration became the key to consolidating Chilean claims to a strategically important territory. Historically this area had been the object of British, French, Dutch, and, later, Argentinian ambitions. East Europeans, Austrians, and Welsh all migrated here, attracted by gold, cattle farming, and whaling.

In the second half of the twentieth century Chile experienced a wave of immigration from the Arab world (especially from Palestine and Lebanon), and to a lesser extent from China and Korea. In the 1970s and 1980s, however, it is estimated that more than 800,000 Chileans left the country either in exile or to escape the harshness of Pinochet's dictatorship. Since the return to democracy and thanks to a relatively stable economic growth, Chile has seen strong migration from neighboring countries. Today, a new group of migrants is reaching the country — poor Peruvians who take on low-paid jobs, traditionally the domain of unskilled Mapuche. If you happen to take a stroll in the center of Santiago on a Sunday, you might think you were in Lima.

A BRIEF HISTORY

Colonial Chile

Pre-Hispanic Chile was inhabited by various indigenous peoples. In the fifteenth century the Incas of Peru conquered northern and central Chile, but their expansion was halted by Mapuche opposition south of Santiago. The Inca Empire was already on the verge of collapse when in 1535 the conquistador Diego de Almagro reached Chile. Almagro entered the country from the Andes with an army of Spanish soldiers and African and indigenous slaves. Only six years later, Pedro de Valdivia founded Santiago de Nueva Extremadura, now Chile, and incorporated the country into the Viceroyalty of Peru. Valdivia died fighting the Mapuche, who were only brought under control by the Spanish some two hundred years later.

Despite their great efforts to conquer and subdue this southern region of their empire, the Spanish never saw Chile as a key colonial territory. Its mineral riches had yet to be discovered, and the colony became merely an agricultural center, receiving little attention from Lima. Such isolation, and their reliance on Peru for governance, created discontent among the criollos (those Spaniards born in the colony).

Independence and Autocracy

On September 18, 1810, the criollos forced the colonial governor to resign, appointed a junta de gobierno (governing committee), and declared independence (though this was actually achieved only eight years later). Defeated by the royalists at the "disaster of Rancagua," the republicans fled to Argentina, where they joined the army of José de San Martín and defeated the Spaniards in 1818.

Chile's national hero and first president was Bernardo O'Higgins, the son of an Irish-born former governor and a member of the Spanish aristocracy. In 1823 O'Higgins was forced to resign by the conservative establishment — they could not accept his authoritarian style and, most importantly, his attempts to curb the power of the Church and the landowners.

O'Higgins's successors were unable to prevent conflict between the conservative elite and the Church on one side and the liberals on the other. A general state of anarchy lasted until 1833, when the Conservatives finally gained control and drafted a new constitution, which vested the president with enormous powers. As in the rest of Latin America, the quest for independence was largely driven by the aspiration of the local colonial elites to legitimize their power. José Joaquín Prieto, Manuel Montt, and Diego Portales were some of the prominent politicians of this period, which came to an end in 1861 with the election of a Liberal president.

This phase coincided with the rise of new social groups who were eager to participate in political life. What had been a predominantly agricultural society, where wealth was concentrated in the hands of a few powerful landowners, was gradually being transformed by events in Europe, particularly in Britain. With the Industrial Revolution, Chile started to exploit its natural resources, such as nitrates, guano, and copper, and began intensive export activities.

With trade came investment, new jobs, and new trends. The new elites aspired to limit the power of the president, reform society according to the European liberal model, and reshape politics through Congress. During the Liberal period the government instituted important reforms such as the separation of Church and state, the introduction of civil marriage, and freedom of religion.

Territorial Expansion and the War of the Pacific

The Liberal period (1861–91) saw the territorial expansion of Chile. Internally, the government ended centuries of Mapuche semiautonomy by forcing the indigenous communities into reservations and selling their land, an initiative that marked the beginning of a series of abuses against the Mapuche. Through organized immigration and the settlement of predominantly German immigrants, Chile also acquired control over the Lake Region and the south. It consolidated its expansion into Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego through a border agreement with Argentina, and finally annexed Easter Island.

The most significant territorial change was, however, the result of a four-year conflict with Bolivia and Peru. Victory in the War of the Pacific (1879–83) enabled Chile to incorporate the northern regions from Antofagasta to Arica and Tacna, although the latter was returned to Peru in 1929. The main reason for the war was economic, as Chile strove to gain full control over its nitrates and copper mines, which were situated in Bolivia. For many years Bolivia had granted mining concessions to Chile; however, disputes arose over Bolivia's constant demands for increases in royalty payments, culminating in Bolivia's ordering the expropriation of the mines. Bolivia felt confident in taking this action because it had just signed a secret alliance with Peru.

The war was fought on sea and land and had disastrous consequences for Peru and Bolivia. Both countries lost economically and strategically important territories. Bolivia lost its only access to the sea. Even today Bolivia contests Chile's rights to the annexed territory, and the conflict lies at the heart of the tense relationships between Chile and Bolivia, and, to a lesser extent, Peru. For Chile, victory brought economic prosperity and military supremacy.

The Oligarchy, the Military, and the New Classes

In 1891, however, Chile's wealth led to a bloody civil war, when the elites opposed President Balmaceda's decision to tax nitrate revenues in order to finance education and other state initiatives. The conflict ended with the president's suicide and the supremacy of the elites, who were able to safeguard their privileges and manipulate elections through parliamentary alliances.

From 1891 to 1925 the country went through a radical transformation, propelled by the export boom in nitrates and copper. While the elites were increasingly accumulating wealth, the Chilean state managed to use some of the export revenues to improve the country's infrastructure and social services. However, this was not enough to provide for the urban poor, who had flocked to the mining areas and the towns in search of work, and who were living in dire conditions, on low salaries increasingly eroded by inflation. At the turn of the century and for years to come, Chilean society was extremely unequal and unstable.

The start of the twentieth century brought the first violent clashes between workers and the state, and the creation of the Chilean Socialist Party. Economic recession following the First World War exacerbated social divisions and forced the Liberals to seek an alliance with the middle class and the workers. This maneuver brought the populist Liberal Arturo Alessandri to power (1920–24) and eventually led to the first military government in the history of Chile.

(Continues…)

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Excerpted from "Chile - Culture Smart!"
by .
Copyright © 2017 Kuperard.
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